Ali Pirhayati
Abstract
In their article in Elm-e Zaban (Volume 7, Issue 11) titled “Acoustic Analysis of Glottal Stop Occurrence before Initial Vowels in Persian Words”, Navab Safavi et al report the findings of their research on the acoustic features of the glottal stop before the word-initial vowels in the Persian ...
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In their article in Elm-e Zaban (Volume 7, Issue 11) titled “Acoustic Analysis of Glottal Stop Occurrence before Initial Vowels in Persian Words”, Navab Safavi et al report the findings of their research on the acoustic features of the glottal stop before the word-initial vowels in the Persian language and try to answer the question whether this sound is a phoneme or not. The research is based on the recorded pronunciation of some non-words with the CVCV syllable structure and also 30 Persian words with word-initial glottal stops (or “vowels” as the authors argue). The authors suggest that the criteria for the existence of the glottal stop consonant in the word group are not verified and conclude that a full glottal stop with the characteristics of a consonant does not exist before the word-initial vowels in the Persian language. It seems that this acoustic research suffers from weaknesses in terms of assumptions, critique of previous studies, methodology, conclusion, and references. The most serious weakness is the confusion between the realms of phonology and phonetics, and the lack of distinction between the status and characteristics of the two branches of linguistics. This reply takes up a number of phonological and methodological issues which challenge the main conclusions of the authors.
Parisa Mohammadian Kalkhuran; Mohammad Bahrani
Abstract
The aim of this research is to survey the performance of several Machine Learning (ML) methods in Persian poem classification into two categories: with allusion and without allusion. To this end, several supervised learning methods are exploited, namely Naive Bayes, Support Vector Machines (SVM), Decision ...
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The aim of this research is to survey the performance of several Machine Learning (ML) methods in Persian poem classification into two categories: with allusion and without allusion. To this end, several supervised learning methods are exploited, namely Naive Bayes, Support Vector Machines (SVM), Decision Tree, Random Forest, K-Nearest Neighbor (KNN), Logistic Regression and Multilayer Perceptron algorithms. After collecting the labeled data in format of two text files, each of the verses converted to numerical vector and after merging data and dividing it into two parts of training and testing, each algorithm is implemented on the train set, and is tested on the test set. Output of each algorithm is the predicted label for each verse by the machine. The evaluation method of the algorithms is LOOCV. The results show that Naive Bayes method with 76.09%, Logistic Regression with 76.09%, Multilayer Perceptron with 75.22% and the Support Vector Machines with 74.35% have better performance than the other algorithms. Overall, according to the other criteria such as f1-score and execution time, it can be said that the best performance is related to the Naive Bayes algorithm.
Raziyeh Gholipour Hafshejani; Mohammad Dabir moghaddam
Abstract
Abstract Theoretical foundation of systemic functional grammar as a general and corpus-based theory concentrates on function and meaning and also focuses on text and the use of language in context. This theory should be applicable to all languages and linguistic works. In this grammar all our inner and ...
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Abstract Theoretical foundation of systemic functional grammar as a general and corpus-based theory concentrates on function and meaning and also focuses on text and the use of language in context. This theory should be applicable to all languages and linguistic works. In this grammar all our inner and outer experiences could be represented by experiential meta-function and its process through transitivity system. This article is a stylistic investigation of the verbs, the process types, and relative frequency of them in dramatic texts. The present study indicates how this theory is capable of analyzing and interpreting dramatic texts stylistically and examining the role of language in dramatic structure. In this study, the authors analyze five famous contemporary Persian plays by transitivity system within the framework of SFG. We consider the frequency and percentage of process types in each play as a stylistic parameter which shows unique structural features of dramatic texts and stylistic features of each play and playwright.
Mohammad Dabir-Moghaddam; Hossein Raeesi
Abstract
Stylistic devices are highly used to write interesting news headlines. However, a review of literature shows that very few studies have been conducted on their usage in a sport context. Therefore, this study has sought to investigate the stylistic devices used in the Iranian sport newspaper headlines. ...
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Stylistic devices are highly used to write interesting news headlines. However, a review of literature shows that very few studies have been conducted on their usage in a sport context. Therefore, this study has sought to investigate the stylistic devices used in the Iranian sport newspaper headlines. To do so, a total of 185 headlines containing stylistic devices from eight sport newspapers collected during a three-month period were classified according to Leigh’s (1994) Model. According to the findings of the study, the two stylistic devices allusion and pun together accounted for over half of the total number. Also, personification, paradox, repetition, and quotation were found to be the least used devices. The findings also indicated that though stylistic devices have served aesthetic functions and have caused the written language to become much closer to colloquial speech, they are sometimes found to be difficult to understand, requiring background knowledge on the readers’ part.
Golnaz Modarresi Ghavami; Mohammad Dabir-Moghaddam; Mohsen Heidarizadi
Abstract
Linguistic typology is the systematic study of linguistic variation and word order is one of its main topics. In this paper, word order components are studied in the varieties of Kurdish, Laki, and Luri languages spoken in Chardawol, a geographical region located in the north of Ilam province in Iran. ...
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Linguistic typology is the systematic study of linguistic variation and word order is one of its main topics. In this paper, word order components are studied in the varieties of Kurdish, Laki, and Luri languages spoken in Chardawol, a geographical region located in the north of Ilam province in Iran. For this purpose, the 24 components used in Dabir-Moghaddam (1392) to determine word order status in languages were employed and examples were provided for each component for the 3 varieties in this study. Results showed a high degree of convergence between the 3 language varieties in the geographical region of Chardawol, which is itself a manifestation of 'regional typology'. A comparison of word order components in the 3 varieties with the languages of Europe-Asia showed that all 3 mainly behave as strong verb-medial languages (with 17 components out of 24). Verb-medial status of these languages was also confirmed in a comparison with world languages (19 components out of 24).
Linguistics
Saeed Labbafan; Mohammad Dabirmoghaddam
Abstract
The main purpose of this study is providing a grammatical description of the agreement system in Khaniki language, based on empirical data. This variant belongs to South-Western Iranian languages. This language, as well as many other Iranian languages, is an endangered language. This language is spoken ...
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The main purpose of this study is providing a grammatical description of the agreement system in Khaniki language, based on empirical data. This variant belongs to South-Western Iranian languages. This language, as well as many other Iranian languages, is an endangered language. This language is spoken in the village [xɑnik], locally called [xunek]. In this paper, the description of the agreement types has been done based on Comrie (1978). In the descriptions, it will eventually turn out that Khaniki has grammaticalized a split alignment system sensitive to grammatical features of 'tense', 'aspect', 'person' in verbs and also the 'semantic feature of the subject'. In clauses containing «+present» verbs, whether transitive or intransitive, the agreement system will be 'Nominative-Accusative' and in clauses containing «+past», «+perfect», «+third person», and «+psyche» verbs, whether transitive or intransitive, the agreement system will be Non-'Nominative-Accusative'. In the 'Nominative-Accusative' system, subjects are always marked by inflectional agreement suffixes appended to verbs and in the Non-'Nominative-Accusative' system, which can be sub-divided to a neutral or tri-oblique type in this language, oblique agreement clitics will mark A, S, and O.
Sara Ahmadi; Habib Gohari
Abstract
The present study aimed at investigating clitic doubling in Kalhori Kurdish. The implications of clitic doubling for Kurdish syntax were also investigated. In other words, it was attempted to find whether clitic doubling is a common feature of this language variety or it leads to some syntactic operations ...
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The present study aimed at investigating clitic doubling in Kalhori Kurdish. The implications of clitic doubling for Kurdish syntax were also investigated. In other words, it was attempted to find whether clitic doubling is a common feature of this language variety or it leads to some syntactic operations including (left or right) dislocation of NP arguments. Another implication of this study is to shed light on the distinction made between (inflectional) affix and clitic. The present study was a descriptive- analytic one in which many arguments were presented to deal with the nature of the relationship between clitic doubling and syntactic structure in Kalhori Kurdish. Theoretically, the present study was mainly based on the Spenser and Luis (2012). Observation, interview and field work were employed to collect the required data. The results indicated that clitic doubling is not a preferred process in Kalhori Kurdish. Instead, Kurdish speakers prefer to dislocate (to right or left) the relevant NP in the sentence to prevent both clitic and its related NP simultaneously.
Mojdeh Parsa kia; Mohammad Dabirmoghaddam
Abstract
Conditional constructions are linguistic expressions in which the occurrence of a phenomenon or situation is subject to the occurrence of another phenomenon or situation. This type of construction has different tense patterns regarding its semantic features. This study was conducted to explain the representation ...
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Conditional constructions are linguistic expressions in which the occurrence of a phenomenon or situation is subject to the occurrence of another phenomenon or situation. This type of construction has different tense patterns regarding its semantic features. This study was conducted to explain the representation of Aspect and Mood and the relationship between them in Persian conditionals. In the present study, the approaches of Comrie (1976) and Palmer (2001) were applied to establish mood and aspect, and Possible World Typology of Conditionals, as put forward by Declerck and Reed (2001), to investigate the semantic classification of conditions. The corpus included 540 conditional constructions extracted from a total of 5 works of contemporary novelists. Analysis of Persian conditional constructions showed that grammatical aspect often appears in the secondary role and function as a mood in such constructions. Further, expression of the unreality of the conditional clause in most conditionals is established through subjunctive mood.
Sadegh Hemmati; Mohammad Dabir-Moghaddam
Abstract
Qashqai Turkic is one of the southwestern (Oghuz) Turkic languages in Iran, which has undergone profound changes at all language levels as a result of intense and long-term contact with Persian. This study investigates the changes that have occurred as a result of this contact in the strategies ...
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Qashqai Turkic is one of the southwestern (Oghuz) Turkic languages in Iran, which has undergone profound changes at all language levels as a result of intense and long-term contact with Persian. This study investigates the changes that have occurred as a result of this contact in the strategies of combining clauses in the structure of complex sentences. These changes include changes in the strategies of coordination, as well as subordination strategies in relative, complement and adverbial clauses. In this study, by investigating and analyzing a written corpus consisting of seven story books, in addition to determining the change cases, an attempt has been made to quantify their extent and progress by quantitatively examining them, and the results of previous research in this field are re-evaluated. The theoretical framework used in this research is the code-copying model introduced by Lars Johanson and used in many researches related to contact linguistics in Turkic languages.
Noorahman Naseh; Mohammad Dabirmoghaddam
Abstract
AbstractAll languages of the world have passive construction that behaves differently in the process of passive formation. One kind of passive construction observed in the world's languages is analytical that Iranian languages usually utilize it to construct passive construction. Pashai language, which ...
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AbstractAll languages of the world have passive construction that behaves differently in the process of passive formation. One kind of passive construction observed in the world's languages is analytical that Iranian languages usually utilize it to construct passive construction. Pashai language, which is one of the Eastern Iranian languages, has an analytical passive construction. Keenan and Dreyer (2007) divided the auxiliary verbs of passive construction into four types. This article investigates the passive construction in Pashai language in terms of structure and lexicon. In Pashai language, the typical pattern for passive construction is similar to the pattern for the auxiliary verbs /biʈʃæ/ and bitek; the former is used for the feminine grammatical subject and the latter for the masculine grammatical subject and the direct object. It becomes a grammatical subject, the subject is lost or deleted, and the verb turns to past participle form. There is another pattern of passivization in Pashai language, which is examined in the second part of this article under the title of lexical and semantic passive; that is, the kind of passive construction in which the passivization process does not work regularly. The method used in this article is obvious and explicit; the text of Pashai language is not only written in their phonological forms but, to avoid problems analyzing the data, the examples are also translated into Persian.
Abedeh Mirzaee
Abstract
With the spread of coronavirus in Iran, the government cancelled public events and declared the necessity of closing crowded centers, including religious places. Following this announcement, some people in Mashhad and Qom protested by entering the holy shrines. These actions were quickly reflected in ...
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With the spread of coronavirus in Iran, the government cancelled public events and declared the necessity of closing crowded centers, including religious places. Following this announcement, some people in Mashhad and Qom protested by entering the holy shrines. These actions were quickly reflected in cyberspace. On twitter- a social networking Web site- which is possible for the users to debate, A group of users considered the opposition to health orders contrary to religious law. Another group contrasted religion with science. The present study aims to study these debates and the main question is that what strategies each group used to express its beliefs and viewpoints? For this purpose, 170 Persian tweets containing the keywords "religion" and "corona" were selected and examined using the Van Dijk Model. Data analysis showed that the most common linguistic tools used by users to represent their beliefs and ideologies are the two strategies of "distancing" and "cursing". Since the role and the influence of social networks, e.g., Twitter, are undeniable and tweets can shape social actions, the conflict observed in this space can also extend to the community and cause tensions. The results of this study and doing similar studies can help to identify the cause of these conflicts and provide the basis for empathy and the possibility of beneficial dialogue between different ideologies and thus ensure social stability.
Zahra Ramezani
Abstract
This study investigates the thematic structure in Middle Persian Texts based on Halliday’s approach. Accordingly, it could be investigated that what changes have happened in the thematic structure during the process of Language development. Halliday and Matthiessen (2014) claim that the theme is ...
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This study investigates the thematic structure in Middle Persian Texts based on Halliday’s approach. Accordingly, it could be investigated that what changes have happened in the thematic structure during the process of Language development. Halliday and Matthiessen (2014) claim that the theme is the point of departure. In order to do this study, two texts of kārnāmag i ardešir bābakān (Text 1) and dinkar šašom (Text 2) were chosen. The results suggest that the highest occurrence of themes belongs to the unmarked multiple theme (almost 65% in both texts) with the pattern of “Textual theme + Topical theme” (70.27% in Text1 and 60.83% in Text2). Based on this fact it could be claimed that in that era this pattern was used to transfer the message.IntroductionThe present research is an attempt to describe themes from the perspective of textual meta-function in Middle Persian texts in Halliday and Matthiessen’s Functional Grammar (2014). Halliday’s systematic order is a meaning-based approach that considers the most significant role of language which is “communicating and meaning”. In this theory, four semantic layers or meta functions are proposed to convey meaning: experiential meta function, interpersonal meta function, textual meta function, and logical meta function. In this research, textual meta function plays the main role. In textual meta-function, themes and rhemes are the structural tools for creating discourse and text. This research is very important in some points, for the first reason, it provides the bed for comparison of the textual characteristics of the texts in present and previous Persian language development. Also, in such researches, different writing styles are examined to convey meaning and pave the way for analyzing the discourse of historical texts.In this regard, two texts of kārnāmag i ardešir bābakān and Dinkard ī šašom were selected to examine the textual characteristics based on the textual meta function of Halliday’s approach (2014), and the first content is about Sassanian dynasty. Dinkard ī šašom is the most complete book of the Middle Persian, and it is included among religious encyclopedias. Research QuestionsThis research attempts to answer the following questions:What are the differences between thematical patterns in two narrative and instructional texts in the middle period?In which of the two narrative and instructional texts, the proportion of marked theme is higher?Literature ReviewVarious studies have been conducted in connection with Halliday's systematic theory (2014), and each of these studies has examined a part of this theory.MethodologyHalliday and Matthiessen (2014) consider the basic unit for understanding meaning in systematic grammar as “clause” and present three layers or meta functions to understand meaning. These three meta-functions are experiential, interpersonal, and textual.Textual meta function deals with the textual structure of the language and organizes the coherence and continuity of the flow of speech. In this theory, the way the structures are arranged inside the clause is important. Based on this, in a clause, there are two roles of theme-rheme, which together represent the theme-rheme system.According to Halliday and Matthiessen (2014), the theme is the point of departure of the message and determines the position of the clause within the text. Also, the theme shows how the message is conveyed with the help of language and context, and how what we say is related to what has already been said. The theme itself is divided into two categories:Simple theme:Simple complex as theme: Ali is Ahmed's best friend.Multiple group complex as theme: Ali's best friend in class is Ahmed.Multiple themes:Textual primer (2014:107): continuative, conjunction, conjunction adjustInterpersonal initiator (2014: 107): vocative, modal adjunct, finite verbalSometimes, multiple themes have all three types of components.ConclusionIn order to investigate the structure of themes in the Middle Persian, 46 sentences were extracted from kārnāmag i ardešir bābakān and Dinkard ī šašom, and these sentences were divided into “clauses” defined in this approach, according to Halliday’s functional grammar.In kārnāmag i ardešir bābakān, 65.04% of themes are multiple and unmarked. The marked themes are rarely seen in this text and the clauses often follow the pattern of unmarked sentences in Middle Persian. Only 4.85% of themes are simple and marked and 6.79% of them are marked multiple.Accordingly, textual themes play an important role in the formation of multiple themes in this text. “ud” (which means “and” in Persian today) as a textual (structural) theme, has the highest percentage of occurrence. The percentage of occurrence of multiple themes with interpersonal themes is only 16.21%. This seems quite logical to consider the nature of this text, which is a narrative one. Another third pattern is “textual theme (structural) + interpersonal theme(facet) + topical theme” and the percentage of occurrence of this pattern is 13.51%. In Dinkard ī šašom, the occurrence of unmarked multiple themes is 64.74%, and in contrast, marked multiple themes occur in only 12.82% of cases, which are often present in the first clauses. The percentage of occurrence of unmarked and marked simple themes is 17.30% and 5.76%, respectively. In this text, interpersonal themes also occupy a significant percentage, which according to the content of this text, the high occurrence of this type of initiators seems logical. Another distinctive feature of themes in Dinkard ī šašom is their discrete themes.In general, it can be pointed out that in the texts of Middle Persian, unmarked and multiple themes were often used to start the message. In the text of kārnāmag i ardešir bābakān, the sentences start with simple and unmarked themes. Then, they move on to multiple themes. Interpersonal themes are rarely seen in these texts.In Dinkard ī šašom, themes are often marked and multiple, and they are the important and significant topics that this text deals with. Then, these primers move to unmarked multiple themes.
Vahid Tavoli; Shahram Modarres Khiabani; Bahram Modarresi; Farideh Mohseni Hanji
Abstract
Rudaki is one of the poets whose poetry collection has not been found and the The present paper has been written to examine the jokes about the outbreak of Covid-19 which have been circulated in the social media. Linguistic and discoursal analysis of these types of jokes which are sociolinguistically ...
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Rudaki is one of the poets whose poetry collection has not been found and the The present paper has been written to examine the jokes about the outbreak of Covid-19 which have been circulated in the social media. Linguistic and discoursal analysis of these types of jokes which are sociolinguistically called "disaster jokes", could contribute to elaborating different aspects of this social phenomenon as a means to show the public culture in the socio-cultural framework of the society. The data of the present paper includes over 100 Covid-19 related jokes which have been collected from the virtual networks and some applications such as telegram and whatsapp within 90days from February to May 2020 made and circulated in Iran. The present data in this paper have been analysed and examined based on general theory of verbal humour and xi2 test. Having examined the existing data in this paper, the authors found a meaningful relationship between "Logical Mechanism" and "Script Opposition" as two main knowledge sources. Furthermore, examining the present data depicts that the political, religion, critical and sexual issues have been linked to these jokes to form humour and irony; accordingly, these jokes can be classified under political, religious, sexual, ethic and neutral categories. In addition, a meaningful relationship between these jokes and script opposition can be taken into consideration.
Masoumeh Zarei; Shahla Raghib Dust
Abstract
Color terms are radiation of the human conceptual system that represents a reflection of his cognitive and linguistic features. The human conceptual system is fundamentally metaphorical in nature. Metaphor is a cognitive mechanism and one of the linguistic strategies that can play a part in color term ...
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Color terms are radiation of the human conceptual system that represents a reflection of his cognitive and linguistic features. The human conceptual system is fundamentally metaphorical in nature. Metaphor is a cognitive mechanism and one of the linguistic strategies that can play a part in color term formation and categorical extension of colors. This study has taken metaphor in Persian color terms and the metaphorical structure of color categories in the Persian language into consideration. In this study, based on cognitive lexical semantics, 910 color terms in Persian have been analyzed. After describing semantic domains in the metaphorical formation of Persian color terms and analyzing the metaphorical structure of Persian color terms, the frequency of semantic domains’ application in Persian color terms and color categories’ tendency for participation in the metaphorical structure of Persian color terms have been investigated. Metaphor is one of the cognitive mechanisms that have a significant role in forming color categories and their conceptual extension in Persian. The domains whose phenomena have been observed in the metaphorical structure of Persian color terms are plant domain, animal domain, food domain, body domain, mineral domain, natural phenomenon domain, and object domain. The frequency of application and distribution of these semantic domains in Persian color categories is not equal. Besides, the rate of color categories’ participation in the metaphorical structure of Persian color terms and their tendency to the source semantic domains vary in metaphorical mapping.
Introduction
Color terms are radiation of the human conceptual system that represents a reflection of his cognitive and linguistic features. Metaphor is a cognitive mechanism and one of the linguistic strategies that can play a part in color term formation and categorical extension of colors. This study has considered metaphor in Persian color terms and the metaphorical structure of color categories in the Persian language. In this research, we attempted to provide answers to the following questions:
How is the metaphorical structure of color categories in the Persian language?
What are the source domains in the metaphorical mapping of concepts in Persian color terms?
What is the contribution of color categories to the metaphorical structure and the extent of their tendency to the semantic domains in Persian color terms?
Literature Review
Conklin (1955) studied color categories in the Hanunóo language. Berlin and Kay (1969) argued that all languages share a universal system of basic color categorization that has evolved in 7 stages. Rosch (1973) studied the color terms of the Dani language. Levinson (2000) categorizes color propositions in the Yélî language. Everett (2005) believes that there are considerable differences in the way colors are named among the speakers of the Pirahã language. Xing (2009) investigated color terms in Chinese. Gol-Mohammadzadeh (2009) studied the symbolic meaning of color terms among Persian speakers. Estaji (2007) investigated Persian color terms structurally. Afrashi and Samet (2012) studied the conceptual metaphors of color in the Persian language. Alizadeh Sahrai and Raskhmahand (2016) investigated the hierarchy of basic color words in Persian.
Methodology
This research was based on a fieldwork study and the data was collected from different social-cultural contexts in the Persian-speaking society. In this study, we examined 910 color terms descriptively and statistically, within the scope of cognitive lexical semantics and the theoretical beliefs of Lakoff and Johnson (1980). In this research, we investigated the metaphorical structure of color categories and the formation of Persian color terms through the cognitive mechanism of metaphorical mapping.
Results
The analysis of the research data shows that in the metaphorical structure of color categories, due to the similarity of an area of the color spectrum to a phenomenon in the surrounding world, the name of that phenomenon is used for the lexical encoding of that area in the color spectrum. There is a general metaphor in the formation of Persian color terms and their categorization: the radiating color phenomenon is color (see the figure below).
Figure 1
The general conceptual metaphor of color in the Persian language
source domain target domain
radiating color phenomenon
color
mapping
This general metaphor is made of a set of radiating color phenomena that create a cluster of “convergent cognitive models” together. This cluster radially causes the formation of a set of convergent subcategories in the color categories, which are: color is plant, color is animal, color is body, color is food, color is mineral, color is natural phenomenon, and color is object. The models of this cluster are shown in the figure below:
Figure 2
The cluster of metaphorical cognitive models
source domains target domains
color
color
color
color
color
color
color
plant
animal
body
comestible
mineral
natural phenomenon
object
mappings
These cognitive models are semantic source domains in the metaphorical mapping of 910 Persian color terms. Figure (3) illustrates the distribution of these domains in the metaphorical mapping of Persian color terms:
Figure 3
the distribution of semantic domains in the metaphorical mapping
Generally, the distribution of these semantic domains in Persian color categories is not the same as the following table shows:
Table 1
The distribution of the semantic domain in color categories
color categories
plant
animal
mineral
natural phenomenon
food
body
object
blue
2%
6%
6%
18%
3%
5%
0%
purple
8%
2%
1%
0%
0%
0%
0%
gray
0%
12%
15%
9%
1%
3%
12%
yellow
17%
10%
18%
8%
10%
23%
14%
green
21%
13%
10%
5%
1%
5%
5%
red
19%
12%
15%
15%
25%
28%
7%
white
3%
9%
10%
14%
17%
8%
26%
black
2%
8%
4%
12%
0%
5%
9%
pink
9%
1%
3%
3%
9%
10%
5%
brown
12%
15%
10%
6%
33%
15%
9%
orange
6%
2%
7%
5%
0%
0%
0%
polycolor
1%
9%
2%
5%
0%
0%
14%
In addition to the non-uniformity of the frequency of the use of semantic domains in color categories, the participation rate of each of these color categories in the metaphorical structure of Persian color terms:
Figure 5
The participation rate of color categories
The tendency of each of these color categories to the source semantic domains in the metaphorical mapping is also different. The following table shows the contribution of color categories in the metaphorical structure of Persian color terms and the tendency of each of them to the source semantic domains in the metaphorical mapping:
Table 2
The contribution and tendency of color categories
color categories
plant
animal
mineral
natural phenomenon
food
body
object
blue
10%
21%
16%
45%
4%
4%
0%
purple
85%
9%
6%
0%
0%
0%
0%
gray
1%
34%
34%
20%
1%
1%
9%
yellow
43%
14%
19%
8%
5%
7%
4%
green
58%
20%
11%
6%
1%
2%
2%
red
41%
14%
13%
12%
%11
7%
2%
white
12%
19%
16%
22%
14%
4%
13%
black
17%
28%
11%
32%
0%
4%
8%
pink
57%
4%
8%
8%
11%
8%
4%
brown
33%
21%
11%
7%
20%
5%
3%
orange
49%
10%
23%
18%
0%
0%
0%
polycolor
14%
55%
10%
21%
0%
0%
0%
Conclusion
Metaphor is one of the cognitive mechanisms that play a great role in the formation of color categories and their conceptual extension in the Persian language. In the metaphorical structure of color categories in Persian, the concept of the surrounding phenomena domain is exactly mapped to the domain of color. The similarity between phenomenon and color is lexically encoded by color-term-forming affixes and morphemes of the Persian language. In Persian color terms, metaphor functions paradigmatically and there is a one-to-one correspondence between the concept of phenomenon and the concept of color. The domains that have been observed in the metaphorical structure of Persian are, in order of maximum, as follows: plant domain, animal domain, food domain, body domain, mineral domain, natural phenomenon domain, and object domain.
There is a non-uniformity in the degree of distribution of these semantic domains in different categories; the presence of some of them is more prominent in some color categories and insignificant in others. Furthermore, the percentage of color categories’ participation in the metaphorical structure of Persian color terms and their tendency to the source domains in the metaphorical mapping are also different. Plant is the most prototypical semantic domain in the metaphorical structure of Persian color categories and green, red, and yellow categories are the prototypical categories in the semantic domain of plant.
SomayehSomayeh Hatamzadeh; Reza Kazemian
Abstract
Conceptual metaphors play a pivotal role in understanding different aspects of life. One of these aspects is illness which remained a rich area of investigation in Persian. Current study took a cognitive-corpus approach and adopted the conceptual metaphor model (Lakoff & Johnson,1980; Kövecses, ...
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Conceptual metaphors play a pivotal role in understanding different aspects of life. One of these aspects is illness which remained a rich area of investigation in Persian. Current study took a cognitive-corpus approach and adopted the conceptual metaphor model (Lakoff & Johnson,1980; Kövecses, 2005) to examine Corona-related metaphors. The case studies comprised Persian press reports describing Corona-related news taken from newspaper websites over the period spanning almost the three months since the first Corona Virus case was reported in Iran. Quantitative and qualitative analyses were done examining the frequency and metaphoric statements related to COVID-19. 176 metaphoric statements with 8 main mappings (war, human, journey, natural force, wild animal, game, tool, and fire) were identified. The findings showed that “war metaphor” is the most frequent one with almost 60 percent of all metaphor occurrences. The results of the study also verified the direct connection between culture and illness metaphors.
Mahsa PahlevanZadeFini; Mohammad Dabirmoghaddam
Abstract
In the present study, the subject of “passive voice in Persian language” has been analyzed and studied in a minimalist approach Bowers (2010; 2018). This approach is one of the latest adjustments made in the framework of the minimalist program, in which the shortcomings of the previous theories ...
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In the present study, the subject of “passive voice in Persian language” has been analyzed and studied in a minimalist approach Bowers (2010; 2018). This approach is one of the latest adjustments made in the framework of the minimalist program, in which the shortcomings of the previous theories have been eliminated and the most important achievement is to provide the universal order of merge; An arrangement that, according to Bowers, can be used to organize the merge process in different languages. In this article, with reference to the linguistic data extracted from “the corpus of syntactic dependency of Persian language”, while showing how this universal order of merge works; we will examine a part of the corpus with the label “passive sentences”. Also, by using Bowers’ latest theoretical framework, which is also effective in Persian, we analyze the active constructions that are present in the corpus as a passive sentence. Determining the syntactic position of noun phrases according to their distinct semantic roles, the position of by-phrase in passive sentences, examining the floating quantifier category and differentiating in the way of merging of predicate sentences and passive sentences in Persian are the results of this research in the framework of the minimalist program.IntroductionIn the present study, the subject of “passive voice in the Persian language” has been analyzed and studied with a minimalist approach Bowers (2010; 2018). This approach is one of the latest adjustments made in the framework of the minimalist program, in which the shortcomings of the previous theories have been eliminated and the most important achievement is to provide the universal order of merge; an arrangement that, according to Bowers, can be used to organize the merge process in different languages. Among the questions we would like to answer are the following questions: 1. based on Persian language data and relying on the theoretical framework of the Minimalist Program, apart from active voice, is passive voice available in today’s Persian language? 2. Does the process of syntactic merging of the passive construction in Persian (if such a structure is observed) follow ‘the universal order of merge’ proposed by Bowers? 3. What is the distinction between passive and middle constructions in Persian?Literature ReviewIn many researches about passive voice, it has been acknowledged that this construction may not exist in some languages, while in some other languages, more than one type of passive construction is observed. The studies conducted on the Persian language are also indicative of this fact. Moein (1974), Sadeghi and Arjang (1978) do not believe in the existence of such a structure in the Persian language. Their justification is based on the fact that although the indefinite article existed in ancient Persian and was a common construction, it disappeared in the Middle Persian period in the form of a lexical process. After that, with the writing of an article by Dabir Moghaddam (1985) entitled 'Passive in the Persian Language', the construction of passive in this language was more considered. In this article, which is actually a criticism of certain opinions, the course of the historical evolution of the passive construction is described and it is suggested that in the ancient and middle ages, the nonmorphological form existed in formal and informal forms, but with the passage from the middle period to the modern classical period due to Historical transformations that have led to the change of the language from inflectional to analytical type, morphological passive is no longer observed, but passive is very widely used in the form of past participle or adjective and the auxiliary verb ‘to be’. MethodologyIn this article, with reference to the linguistic data extracted from the “Persian Syntactic Dependency Corpus”, while showing how this universal order of merge works, we will examine a part of the corpus with the label “passive sentences”. Also, by using Bowers’ latest theoretical framework, which is also effective in Persian, we analyze the active constructions that are present in the corpus as a passive sentence. Determining the syntactic position of noun phrases according to their distinct semantic roles, the position of by-phrase in passive sentences, examining the floating quantifier category and differentiating in the way of merging of predicate sentences and passive sentences in Persian are the results of this research in the framework of the minimalist program. ResultsBased on the later approach of Bowers (2010; 2018), we analyzed the sentences with a passive tag in the “Persian Syntactic Dependency Corpus”. There were some mistakes in the corpus that were described in the article. What is known as a passive sentence according to Bowers’ minimalist approach has special characteristics, only one of which is the presence of an auxiliary verb in the sentence. Among the mentioned usages of the verb “to become” in the Persian language, only the use of this verb as an auxiliary verb in personal and impersonal constructions can be accepted with the tag of passive in the corpus.In the present article, after describing the background of the studies conducted on the passive voice in the Persian language, we discussed the theoretical foundations of the minimalist program in the investigation of voice. Then we showed that what has been introduced as the minimalistic approach of Collins (2005) to solve how to form the passive construction, basically demonstrates the weakness and inability of this approach in analyzing some constructions ConclusionDetermining the syntactic position of noun phrases according to their distinct semantic roles, determining the position of by-phrases in passive sentences, examining the category of floating quantifiers and creating a distinction in the way of merging middle sentences and passive sentences in the Persian language are possible based on Bowers' minimalistic approach.
Masood Ghayoomi
Abstract
Coronavirus pandemic caused changes in the daily lifestyle, such as reducing social interactions and creating social distancing. In this research, we pursue two goals. One is algorithmic content analysis of comments/posts in Persian related to the Coronavirus on two social media, namely Tweeter and Instagram. ...
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Coronavirus pandemic caused changes in the daily lifestyle, such as reducing social interactions and creating social distancing. In this research, we pursue two goals. One is algorithmic content analysis of comments/posts in Persian related to the Coronavirus on two social media, namely Tweeter and Instagram. To this end, topic modeling is used as a method for content analysis to cluster the data into abstract topics. The other goal is finding the correlation between topics and hashtags in the comments/posts. To this end, we developed a corpus from these two social media. We found 24 abstract topics by algorithmic content analysis of this corpus and they were manually labeled to be comprehensive. According to the corpus and the statistical information of the extracted topics, it can be speculated that about 25% of the comments/posts in this corpus focused on political and social issues of the virus. 10 fine-grained topics which contained 35% of the comments were related to the Coronavirus itself and its pandemic property. This indicates the importance of the attention that has been paid to social media for informing and disseminating information. Furthermore, the hypothesis of existing correlation between topics and hashtags was studied from statistical point of view by using the Pearson correlation coefficient. For 20 topics, a high correlation score between topics and hashtags was found; but this correlation was not found for 4 topics. The outcome of this research can be used to increase the internal coherence of a text and to make the hashtags predictable.
Shahla Seifouri; Yadgar Karimi; Shahram Saeidi; Mohsen Masoomi
Abstract
Parallel merge generates a structure that contains a double symmetric relation, in which the shared object has two mother nodes. Naturally, the Linearization of multidominant structures derived from parallel merge will face challenges. The purpose of this study was to analyze and dissect the algorithms ...
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Parallel merge generates a structure that contains a double symmetric relation, in which the shared object has two mother nodes. Naturally, the Linearization of multidominant structures derived from parallel merge will face challenges. The purpose of this study was to analyze and dissect the algorithms that have been proposed in the relevant literature to address the challenge of the linearization of multidominant structures. Specifically, in this research, the content of the proposed algorithms regarding linearization of multidominant structure was qualitatively examined using graph and set notations. The empirical and computational quantitative approaches, in relation to the existence of this type of structure, showed that multidominant structure was the natural result of the function of merge in the workspace rather than the consequences of parallel merge. To shed light on the performance of merge in the workspace, putting order into set merge was raised. Hence, part of the linearization took place in narrow syntax.
Introduction
Parallel merge generates a structure that contains a double symmetric relation, in which the shared object has two mother nodes. Naturally, the Linearization of multidominant structures derived from parallel merge will face challenges. The purpose of this study is to analyze and dissect the algorithms that have been proposed in the relevant literature to address the challenge of the linearization of multidominant structures. Specifically, in this research, the content of the proposed algorithms regarding the linearization of multidominant structures will be qualitatively examined using graphs and set notations. Empirical and computational quantitative approaches, concerning the existence of this type of structure, indicate that multidominant structures are the natural outcome of the merge function in the workspace rather than the result of parallel merge. To shed light on the performance of merge in the workspace, putting order into set merge is raised. Hence, part of the linearization takes place in narrow syntax.
Research Question(s)
This research addresses two fundamental questions. The first question examines how the presented algorithms linearize multidominant structures. The second question explores the possibility of achieving theoretical generalization in the workspace regarding the role of merge as a multidominant constructor, ultimately contributing to the initial linearization process in narrow syntax.
Literature Review
Researchers have aimed to address the linearization of multidominant structures by developing algorithms. Recent algorithms have made significant progress in solving the linearization problem for symmetric multidominant structures.
In the algorithm of Williams (1978), multidominance was a consequence of coordination, not of ATB movement. Wilder (1999) and Grachanen Yuksek (2007) have tried to linearize the multidominant structure by modifying the definition of c-command and movement so this structure is linearized in situ without affecting other parts. Regarding the linearization of multidominant structures, Wilder (1999) ignored some of the nodes in coordinate structures by introducing the notion of full dominance.
In Citko's (2005) algorithm, movement is regarded as a key factor in the linearization of multidominant structures. In her algorithm, traces are not pronounced since they do not belong to the computational component and result from the derivation process.
In the representation of a multidominant structure, in addition to complete dominance and precedence relations, there are syntactic dependencies in more than one place. It seems that the merge behavior within the proposed algorithms can bring us closer to a theoretical generalization about the nature of merge as a multidominant constructor.
Methodology
In this study, we are undertaking descriptive-analytical research. To begin with, theoretical information regarding various types of merges in the minimalist program as well as algorithms for linearizing multidominant structures was gathered. These concepts were then discussed and analyzed using set notations and graph notations.
Discussion
The noteworthy point is that a multidominant structure is not just a product of parallel merge; rather, it is the fundamental characteristic of merge in the workspace. From this perspective, shown in Diagram 17, the internal merge of XP leads to the formation of an asymmetric multidominant structure. In this case, XP simultaneously merges into two positions. One of the occurrences of XP is under the dominance of YP and the other occurrence is under the dominance of ZP. Therefore, we can consider merge as an operation that naturally creates a multidominant structure.
Diagram 17. The workspace resulting from the set merge
According to Chomsky (2020: 38), parallel merge does not have legitimacy and it is necessary to eliminate parallel merge from computational component. As shown in diagram 21, we consider the symmetric multidominant structure in the form of two floating trees in the derivation. The result of this event is diagram 22, in which the original structure segregates into two asymmetric multidominant structures and hence the parallel merge is removed.
Diagram 21. symmetric multidominant structure (Gračanin-Yuksek, 2013: 269)
Diagram 22. Two floating trees in derivation
The existence of two floating trees within the minimalist program in derivation can be a channel for theoretical and empirical discussions. The possibility of placing an order on the set merge can help some part of linearization to take place in narrow syntax.
The authors contend in Chomsky (1995: 244) implicitly applying order to the unordered two-membered set {α, β} in {α,{α,β}}.
{α, β} = {α,{α,β}}
According to Langendoen (2003: 310), the hypothetical set E′ is the same as the set E, and the set E′ is the ordered pair < α, β>, and this point is also mentioned in the research of Kuratovsky (1921:171).
E= {α, {α, β}}
E′= {{α}, {α, β}}
If α≠β → < α, β> = {{α} , {α, β}}
If the product of the set merge is considered from this perspective,
it assumes that set merge produces a set of ordered pairs.
If α is head in the set merge, the workspace created in this relationship is called ¥1, and the reflection of the desired relationship will be:
1= {{α},{α, β}}¥
And if β is the head, the reflection of the desired relationship in the new workspace will be ¥2:
2= {{ β },{ β, α }}¥
If we want to provide a schematic view of the simultaneous existence of symmetry and asymmetry along with the multidominance structure in 11.b, perhaps we can present diagram 24 in which parallel merge is not involved, and linearization of the existing relations may be proposed in situ.
(11. b) Mary wrote and John reviewed an article on Bo. (Gračanin-Yuksek, 2013: 269)
Diagram 24. Linearization of the multidominant structure, in situ
Conclusion
In this research, initially, various algorithms for linearizing multidominant structures were examined. Subsequently, workspaces resulting from the operation of different merges were investigated within the target tree graph, categorized as "symmetric" and "asymmetric" spaces. Later on, the merge was introduced as a multidominant constructor. It was noted that multidominant structures, prior to being explicitly the result of the parallel merge, exhibit key characteristics of the merge within the workspace.
The authors believed that Chomsky (1995: 244) implicitly applied an order to the unordered two-membered set {α,β} in {α,{α,β}}. Perhaps a theoretical generalization can emerge by introducing an initial order to the elements of the binary set in merge. In this perspective, both external and internal merges gain the capability to generate ordered pairs. Furthermore, in a general conceptual view, a tree graph was presented in which both hierarchical and adjacency relationships were simultaneously evident and the linearization of multidominant structure was suggested in situ.
It seems that despite the simultaneous presence of symmetry and asymmetry relationships in the tree diagram and the performance of various types of merge, revisiting, and defining a new workspace in the linearization of multiple dominance structures is not out of reach with Citko (2011a: 211).
Abolfazl Alamdar; Behzad Rahbar
Abstract
The present study analyzed and described the process of coining new words and terms related to the Corona disease, which has recently been faced by the international community. Official news agencies and websites in both Persian and English languages, such as IRNA, ISNA, Khabar Online, BBC and CNN, were ...
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The present study analyzed and described the process of coining new words and terms related to the Corona disease, which has recently been faced by the international community. Official news agencies and websites in both Persian and English languages, such as IRNA, ISNA, Khabar Online, BBC and CNN, were the most important sources of data collection. In addition, some online dictionaries such as Merriam-Webster, Oxford, Longman, Cambridge and Urban were used. The factors of age, gender and level of education were not considered in the present study, and the research method was descriptive-analytical as well. Word-formation processes for the research data, which consisted of 152 words and terms, included derivation, compounding, compounding and derivation, coinage, abbreviation, shortening, acronym, blending, and borrowing. Then the coined phrases (syntactic groups) were classified into two types of noun and adjective. The findings showed that the formation of syntactic groups with 72% and the process of blending with 33% had the highest percentage of occurrence in Persian and English, respectively. The results of the present study can help linguists in measuring the generativity of word-formation processes in the face of natural events and, subsequently, social changes.
Ali Asghar Habibi; Abdul Basit Arab Yousefabadi; Mojgan Bayat Kashkoli
Abstract
semantically, discovering the relationship of some verbal metaphors with the intended message is out of reach of the audience, in which case the presence of visual metaphor to reinforce the message will be necessary. This cognitive phenomenon is called multidimensional metaphor. The emergence and spread ...
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semantically, discovering the relationship of some verbal metaphors with the intended message is out of reach of the audience, in which case the presence of visual metaphor to reinforce the message will be necessary. This cognitive phenomenon is called multidimensional metaphor. The emergence and spread of corona as an emerging phenomenon has led some magazines and websites to use cartoons made of multifaceted metaphors to convey corona messages. The message in such cartoons is produced through two visual and verbal cognitive expressions; therefore, it is necessary to discover the interaction of both dimensions. In the present study, based on the descriptive-analytical method and based on Forsville (1994) theory, the selected coronary cartoons of Al-Youm Al-Sabee online magazine are examined. The results show that the cartoons in question contain metaphorical cognitive mechanisms; accordingly, the multifaceted metaphors of the cartoons in question - the most frequent of which (42%) are related to health issues - are in order to reinforce the message and help the messenger to identify the relationship between the origin and destination areas. Also, in none of the multidimensional metaphors in question was the possibility of reversing the origin and destination domains found.
Hussein Mollanazar; Arghavan Omranipour
Abstract
The novel coronavirus (Covid-19) outbreak has led to the eye-catching emergence of new words and metaphors in the world. The important properties of languages are productivity and creativity as language users need new words to describe new concepts and situations. Sometimes, due to cultural and ...
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The novel coronavirus (Covid-19) outbreak has led to the eye-catching emergence of new words and metaphors in the world. The important properties of languages are productivity and creativity as language users need new words to describe new concepts and situations. Sometimes, due to cultural and social changes, languages should be compatible with new circumstances in order to guide behaviors and construct cultures. The Persian language can also be changed through the emergence of new words and equivalents in such linguistic and extra-linguistic evolution. The emergence of new words and metaphors may shape various behaviors, thus influencing cultural, social, and political aspects. Language, the powerful cultural and social means, should be taken into consideration as its appropriate use may contribute to further the aims of communities. The present research explored various aspects of the selected words related to the COVID-19 outbreak. The results revealed that such words are mostly compound-derivative ones and the result of borrowing, loan blending, and calque.
Faezeh Marsous; Ferdos Agagolzade; Aliyeh Kord Zafaranlu Kambuziya
Abstract
Today, we see fruitful efforts in the field of Persian language teaching; however, there are still shortcomings due to a lack of sufficient studies as well as fundamental research in this field. Word selection and scientific teaching of words are those areas that have ambiguities, such as the principles ...
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Today, we see fruitful efforts in the field of Persian language teaching; however, there are still shortcomings due to a lack of sufficient studies as well as fundamental research in this field. Word selection and scientific teaching of words are those areas that have ambiguities, such as the principles of selecting Persian language teaching words, word leveling, and how to teach them. lexical frequency and word applicability are two principles in teaching second or foreign-language words. This research aims to compare the frequency of educational words in the Shiraz and Parfa series, as well as the frequency with which their educational words appear. As a result, the lexical frequencies of these two sets were compared. The word frequency of these two sets was then compared to three lists of words. Data was analyzed using Microsoft Excel software, pivot tables, and formula writing methods. The results show that a total of 864 words, or more than 30% of the words in both sets, are shared. The Shiraz series contains 47.15 percent of its vocabulary in at least one list, while the Parfa series encompasses 38.75 percent of its vocabulary in at least one list. When the results are compared, the Shiraz series outperforms the Parfa series in terms of lexical frequency, with roughly half of its educational vocabulary appearing at a minimum in one of the selected frequency lists. IntroductionToday, teaching the Persian Language, as a branch of applied linguistics, is one of the significant goals of the cultural organizations and also of the Country’s Comprehensive Scientific Map. Despite the fruitful efforts and actions taken for this purpose, a lot has yet to be done before achieving scientific goals in the Persian language teaching domain and the shortage of some fundamental studies in this domain remains evident, which makes eminent the need for more studies in the field. One of these shortages is the selection of vocabulary content appropriate for the language learning levels in Persian language teaching books and syllabi. Studies in language teaching domains, including Meara (1980) and Nation (1990), indicate that many of the language learners’ problems in language production and reception result from their low vocabulary knowledge (Kang, 1995:43). Basically, it is impossible to learn a language without vocabulary [Knowledge] (Rivers,1981:242).In regard to this, the importance and key role of vocabulary in second or foreign language teaching in general and in syllabi, teaching methods, and testing approaches specifically is noticeable and salient. The selection of educational content suitable for language learners’ levels and goals has a significant role in learning and achieving educational goals. Shahbazi (1387) introduces six main criteria and several sub-criteria for selecting vocabulary one of which is frequency. According to Willkins (1972:118), frequency is one of the most important criteria and usually, not necessary, the most useful words are the most frequent ones.A question that is put forward is how relevant the vocabulary in Persian language teaching books is to the Persian language vocabulary corpora. For this purpose, the present study seeks to investigate the vocabulary selection in the two-textbook series of Shiraz and Parfa regarding their frequency and compare the frequency of their vocabulary. The reason for choosing the two series is the two principles of being up-to-date and common. Research Question(s) How relevant is the vocabulary in each of the two-textbook series of Shiraz and Parfa to the three corpora’s word lists or the word lists in question? How is the vocabulary dispersion in these two-textbook series? How relevant are the vocabulary frequencies of each level in these two Persian teaching series to one another?There are no hypotheses for these questions and they will be answered through statistical investigation and analysis.Literature ReviewAccording to Shahbazi (1387), proper perfect teaching has four fundamental steps selection of teaching content, grading teaching material, teaching, and evaluation. He believes that vocabulary is one of the fundamental components of language and it is very important to teach it. He says that in traditional language teaching methods, vocabulary is selected based on language intuition, experience, and taste, which is likely to be erroneous.Shahrokhi’s study (1395) was conducted with the aim of vocabulary standardization in teaching the Persian language to speakers of other languages and putting forward a vocabulary list appropriate for different proficiency levels in the common European of Reference for Languages. The method of this research is qualitative content analysis and its tool is the researcher’s checklists and Delphi consensus study (consulting linguists). So, a standard framework for AZOOFA (Teaching Persian Language & Culture to Speakers of Other Languages) learning, teaching, and evaluating along with a word list and graded functions and notions appropriate for the four levels of novice 1, novice 2, intermediate1, intermediate 2 was achieved.Jahangardi (1395) sought to investigate the extent to which the vocabulary in books for teaching Persian to speakers of other languages overlaps and corresponds to the most frequent Persian language vocabulary. The word list in each of the books and the learner’s corpus was compared to the word frequency list of the base corpus. The results indicated that, in terms of vocabulary learning levels, the book sometimes presents only 2% of the frequent Persian language vocabulary to the learners.MethodologyThe series’ vocabularies were collected from their vocabulary indices and were compared to each other in terms of word frequency; after editing and POS coding. Then, the series’ word frequencies were compared to the word lists from Sahraee et al. (1398), Ne’matzadeh et al. (1390) and Assi (1398). The data was analyzed using Microsoft Excel.ConclusionThe preset study sought to investigate vocabulary selection in Persian language teaching and, particularly, in Shiraz and Parfa, the two textbook series. The research questions are as follows:How relevant is the vocabulary in each of the two-textbook series of Shiraz and Parfa to the three corpora’s word lists or the word lists in question?How is the vocabulary dispersion in these two-textbook series?How relevant is the vocabulary frequencies of each level in these two Persian teaching series to one another?To answer these questions, the two series’ vocabularies were collected and compared first to one another and then to the three noted Persian corpora or word lists, namely Sahraee et al. (1398), Ne’matzadeh et al. (1390) and Assi (1398).Comparing the results, the answer to the first question is that the Shiraz series, having roughly 50% of its vocabulary in common with at last one of the selected frequency lists, is in a better situation regarding vocabulary frequency, compared to the Parfa series. Nevertheless, both series need to include more applied frequent words suitable for applied functions in the target society, paying attention to teaching necessities including applied educational content, learners’ need, learners’ age, learning goals, etc.The answer to the second question is that, in both series, the number of words taught in each level increases up to the intermediate level and then decreases during higher levels. The bell curve of vocabulary dispersion in each series has a scientific and logical justification and reveals that the teaching load is mainly at intermediate levels in both series.The answer to the third question is that the highest percentage of vocabulary overlap is in the elementary and pre-intermediate levels, namely between the first volume of the Parfa series and the first and second volumes of the Shiraz series. Also, the lowest percentage of vocabulary overlap is in the upper-intermediate and advanced levels, namely the third volume of Parfa and the fourth volume of the Shiraz series. These results seem to result partly from the difference between the books in terms of proficiency levels.
ُShayesteh Sadat Mousavi
Abstract
Among new achievements of cognitive linguistics some have resulted from returning to the concepts of literary traditions, from which one can mention the participation of metaphor, metonymy, and allegory in the process of cognition, and metaphor and metonymy have always had a place of significance. In ...
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Among new achievements of cognitive linguistics some have resulted from returning to the concepts of literary traditions, from which one can mention the participation of metaphor, metonymy, and allegory in the process of cognition, and metaphor and metonymy have always had a place of significance. In the history of Western rhetorics the relation between these two was not at issue as they are disconnected in nature. In subsequent eras, they were even regarded as having a confrontational relation. Unlike Western rhetoricians, Muslim rhetoricians have always maintained a close relation between metonymy and metaphor. They considered metaphor as a type of metonymy. In this paper, we are going to show that the metonymic basis of metaphors, as the Muslim rhetoricians believe, is a provable matter of fact. For this purpose and as the first step, we deal with the evolution of approaches towards metonymy and metaphor in Western and Islamic rhetoric history. Then, we will discuss how the confrontation of these two concepts fades as cognitive studies come to work. Still, the cognitivists mostly do not believe that all types of metaphor rise from metonymy, while the Muslim rhetoricians firmly believe that all types of metaphor have a metonymic basis. We are going to show that not only some but all kinds of metaphors have a metonymic basis and all types of conceptual metaphors are constructed upon conceptual metonymy. The theory of Categorization which is one of the most significant ones in cognitive studies has been part of our argumentation framework.
Introduction
Among new achievements of cognitive linguistics, some have resulted from returning to the concepts of literary traditions and the roles that they play in the constituting of the process of thinking. From these achievements one can mention the participation of mechanisms like metaphor, metonymy, and allegory in the process of cognition, among those metaphor and metonymy have always had the place of power and significance. During the history of Western rhetoric, these two concepts have been for a long time regarded as two independent ornamental figures of speech and the correlation between them was not at issue. In subsequent eras, these two were even regarded as having a confrontational relation. Unlike Western rhetoricians,
Muslim rhetoricians have always maintained a close relation between metonymy and metaphor. They considered all types of metaphors derived from metonymy. Interestingly, in very recent linguistic research of metaphor, particularly Cognitive studies, the correlation between metaphor and metonymy was drawn forward. Still, not all but only parts of metaphors were acknowledged to be related to metonymies.
In this research, I am going to show if the metonymic basis of metaphors, as the Muslim rhetoricians believe, is a provable matter of fact.
Literature Review
Metaphor and its cognitive weight is discussed by a significant number of Western rhetoricians. In this regard, the metaphor-oriented ideas of Western rhetoricians from Aristotle (1987) to Vico (1968), Burke (1969), Lacan (1977), Foucault (1970), Vico (1968), White (1978), Jacobson (2002) and etc, are discussed. Then, the comments of cognitive rhetoricians like Lakeoff (1987), Lakeoff and Johnson (1980), and Kövecses (2013) show that the confrontation of metaphor and metonymy tends to fade in some part. Kövecses (2013) has the closest literature to this paper, since he precisely shows why some parts of metaphors are derived from metonymy. Jurjani (1991) and his followers also discuss how the metaphor must be regarded as a production of metonymy.
Methodology
Through applying cognitive linguistics approaches and by taking a deductive approach, I will show that not only some but, as Muslim rhetoricians maintain, all kinds of metaphors have a metonymic basis and all types of conceptual metaphors are constructed upon conceptual metonymy. The theory of Categorization which is from the most significant ones in cognitive and pre-cognitive studies has been part of our argumentation framework.
Discussion
While Linguists like Jacobson consider a confrontational relation between metaphor and metonymy, cognitive linguists believe that the metaphors based on resemblance are made of metonymy but those based on correlation are not metonymic. Muslim rhetoricians, following Jurjani (1991), assert that all types of metaphors are metonymic in basis. They believe that metaphor is not only a lexical replacement but a new conceptual production; So, when we use a word in metaphorical concept, we are transforming it from the previous domain (matter or Jins ـ جنس ـ in Islamic texts) to a new one. Indeed, the factor of resemblance permits us to correlate a concept with concepts of a new domain so that the concept becomes different in essence and evolves into a new meaning. As an example, when we call a brave person a "lion" it is not a mere simile or resemblance but for us the brave person is actually a lion. In this meaning, the brave person and lion are gathered in a new domain while in the previous meaning animals and humans do not belong to a unit domain or category. Here by referring to the cognitive function of "category", with special attention to the new concept of category in philosophies like Wittgenstein's (1953), we can deduce that all resemblances derive from the correlation of concepts in a new category. Contrary to classical approaches to categorization, such as Aristotle's, new ones do not take that categories are founded on common characteristics
among their members. Members of a category may be way different in appearance and quality, since categories are all lingual in the essence. So, we can apply a word in metaphorical concept just because it can state in a new category with adjacency of essences it did not use to be homogenous with. When the brave man states in the new category with adjacency/ correlation of warrior animals, we can use the word "lion" for him.
Conclusion
According to Kövecses (2013), correlation metaphors are based on metonymy. Correlation metaphors are based on two connected concepts from a unit domain. They can be attached due to adjacency or coincidence. But he claims that resemblance metaphors are not based on metonymy because two attached concepts in this type of metaphor are not from the same domain, so adjacency can't be a matter of fact.
The late approaches to categorization prove the inaccuracy of Kövecses' hypothesis about resemblance metaphors. Recent linguistic studies argue that categories are not bonded to factual common characteristics of the members but they are all lingual/mental in nature, so they can collect non-homogenous objects. In this view, the resembled item, despite of its heterogeneity with other members, can stay on with them in the same category. Here one can see the accuracy of Jurjani's idea of the resembled word (metaphor) entering a new domain (Jins).
Being in a unit category provides the adjacency, even though mentally not factually. So, the resemblance metaphors are also based on metonymy. Kövecses and his followers considered metonymic basis only for correlated metaphors because they regarded
metonymies as confined to factual adjacency. But regarding the lingual/mental nature of categorization, we can determine that the resembled item is also in adjacency with the other items of the category i.e. domain. So, all types of metaphors must be regarded as metonymic in the basis.
Ghazal Baghbani; Fatemeh Karampour
Abstract
Idioms are an inseparable part of any language. Therefore, people frequently use them in everyday speech. Since idioms have complex semantic structures, in order to understand their meaning and main message, one needs to use their allegorical meaning depending on the different semantic fields to which ...
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Idioms are an inseparable part of any language. Therefore, people frequently use them in everyday speech. Since idioms have complex semantic structures, in order to understand their meaning and main message, one needs to use their allegorical meaning depending on the different semantic fields to which they belong. In this research, authors tried to explain the concepts of Persian idioms with the help of Conceptual Blending theory of Fauconnier and Turner (2002). This research method is a qualitative one. Authors consider numerous idioms in Persian language but due to the limitations they had in data analysis, they selected 15 of the most frequent ones among them and used them in this research. The results revealed that we can explain and describe the idioms on the basis of the Conceptual Blending theory; in this way and by conceptually combining the elements of illustration with the figurative atmosphere which exists in the idioms, we can understand their meanings and intentions.
elham sobati
Abstract
Given the importance of sight, which is one of the most important human senses regarding receiving environmental data, and its fundamental role in the recognition and processing of many behaviors, such as observing movements, events, and emotional states in individuals, as well as tracking and orientation, ...
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Given the importance of sight, which is one of the most important human senses regarding receiving environmental data, and its fundamental role in the recognition and processing of many behaviors, such as observing movements, events, and emotional states in individuals, as well as tracking and orientation, it should be expected that the performance of the blind in the process of language acquisition and learning cognitive skills was different in many aspects when compared to sighted individuals. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate and compare the metaphorical concepts of love in the daily speech of Kurdish-Persian bilingual sighted and blind adults. To this end, research data was gathered using interviews with 50 bilingual Kurdish-Persian informants aged 18-70 from the Ilam province.Data analysis was done using descriptive and inferential statistics methods in SPSS software version 22. The results showed that, regarding the frequency of metaphors, there were no significant differences between the performance of the blind and the sighted adults. However, the frequency of the utilized sensory sources for the source domains of love was different in the speech of the two groups, where the blind used the sense of hearing significantly more than the sighted people to express love (P<0.05). Moreover, the subjects used certain source domains to express love which seemed to reflect cultural influences. In addition, the results of this study can lead to more interaction of blind subjects with society through solving their language problems. IntroductionOne of the important topics in the study of the emotional metaphor is to investigate the issue of what source domains are used by the speakers of the language in expressing their feelings. Kövecses (2002: 16-24) by extracting the most common source and target domains in the process of metaphorization, introduces 13 source domains as follows: human body, health and illness, animals, plants, buildings and construction, machines and tools, games and sport, money and economic transactions (business), cooking and food, heat and cold, light and darkness, forces, movement and direction.In the study of metaphorical concept of love, Kövecses (1986: 62) defines a central metaphor for love and states that it is a model for theconceptualization of love based on the fact that love is "the unification of two complementary parts". The common conceptual metaphors that Kövecses defines for love are: love is drink: I am thirsty for your love; Love is travel: It was a winding road; Love is unity: We are two souls in one body; we are inseparable; love is intimacy: they are very friendly; Love is bound: there is a closed circle between them (Kövecses, 2002: 27-26). Considering the importance of the subject's senses, especially the sense of sight in gaining experiences and the effect of its deficiency on the different representations of skills acquired in these subjects compared to sighted ones, knowing these differences provides valuable information about how neural structures interact in language skills. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate and compare the metaphorical concepts of love in the daily speech of Kurdish-Persian bilingual sighted and blind adults. In order to achieve this goal, we are trying to answer the question, what is the difference between the performance of Kurdish-Persian bilingual sighted and blind adults in understanding the conceptual metaphors of love?Literature ReviewThe study of the researches carried out in the field of conceptual metaphors of love showed that this concept has been investigated mostly in literary concepts and the examination of such metaphors in daily language is one of the main differences of this research with the other researches. A few of these studies will be mentioned subsequently.Ibrahimi et al. (2017) investigated the cognitive metaphors of love in Persian, English, and Turkish Proverbs. The results of their study showed that the mappings of love, disaster, pain, suffering, and diseasewere the most frequent mappings in the Persian language, and "love is light" was the most frequent mapping in both English and Turkish languages. The results of the research of Samimifar et al. (2022) showed that the mapping "love is sorrow" with a frequency of 123 and the mapping "love is a deception" with a frequency of 16 had the highest and lowest frequency in Khosrow and Shirin, respectively.Phuong, N. D., & Anh (2016) examined the cultural variations in conceptual metaphors of love in English and Vietnamese. 872 idioms showing social relationships have been gathered from a variety of sources such as novels, newspapers, magazines, daily interviews on radio, television, etc. Rendić (2022) did a thesis titled “A contrastive analysis of love metaphors in English and Croatian”. The findings of his study showed that although the informants of these two languages had different cultures and environments, they both used the conceptual metaphors of "love is journey" and "love is war" in these two languages. But this cultural and environmental difference made them use different tools for the same conceptual metaphors.MethodologyTo measure how the conceptual metaphors of love are processed, a qualitative method was used, so that the research data in this section was collected using interviews and data was extracted through recording the speech of blind subjects and the sighted group as a control group. In this study, vision status was considered as an independent variable, and mapping as a dependent variable. The statistical population of this study included all blind Kurdish-Persian bilingual subjects and their sighted counterparts who live in Ilam City and its surrounding cities. Among these subjects, a total of 50 adults in the agerange of 18-70 years were considered for this study, out of which 25 congenitally blind subjects were selected as the experimental group and 25 sighted peers were selected as the control group. By studying the medical files of blind subjects, those who met the conditions (adults who are illiterate to bachelor's degree, Kurdish-Persian bilingual living in Ilam province, in the age range of 18-70 years, with normal vision in the case of sighted subjects, congenital blind subjects, having average IQ, right-handedness, belonging to the middle social class) were selected. Sighted adults, who were the counterparts of blind adults, were selected from normal subjects.In this study, two methods of descriptive and inferential statistics have been used to analyze the data. In descriptive statistics, information concerning the frequency and percentage of metaphorical expressions is provided. Also, a significant inferential analysis of the frequency comparison was performed using the chi-square test. All statistical analyses were performed in SPSS version 22 software.ConclusionThe data analysis of this test showed that the subjects metaphorized the feeling of love using 271 metaphorical expressions in the form of 53 mappings. In the meantime, in the metaphorization of this feeling in the speech of the sighted subjects, 112 metaphorical expressions were raised through 25 mappings. On the other hand, the blind subjects expressed the feeling of love using 159 metaphorical expressions in the form of 28 mappings. The general comparison of the subjects' performance in the test of understanding the conceptual metaphors of love indicated that although the number of mappings used in the speech of the two groups of sightedand blind adults was largely similar, the sensory sources used for the origin of love were different. To be more precise, the blind subjects used the sense of hearing statistically significant more than the sighted subjects to express love. Also, in some cases, subjects used specific source domains to express love, which seemed to be a reflection of cultural influences.
