Elham Khazama; Mozhgan Homayounfar
Abstract
Abstract
Persian uses coordination as a primary strategy for constructing complex syntactic structures. This research compares coordination in two varieties of Persian: formal written and informal colloquial. There are different types of coordinators which are a subgroup of conjunctions in Persian including ...
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Abstract
Persian uses coordination as a primary strategy for constructing complex syntactic structures. This research compares coordination in two varieties of Persian: formal written and informal colloquial. There are different types of coordinators which are a subgroup of conjunctions in Persian including monosyndetic, bisyndetic and multisyndetics the latter has not been previously mentioned in research. Surprisingly, the null coordinator is the most frequent one in both formal written and informal colloquial Persian. Statistical analysis showed that /bâ/ “with”, a preposition with meanings ranging from instrumentality to companionship, also functions as a coordinator in both formal and informal Persian. This positions Persian among “With-languages”, contrasting with “And-languages” in typological studies.
Keywords: coordination, conjunctive coordinators, disjunctive coordinators, adversative coordinators, monosyndetic, bisyndetic, multisyndetic coordinators
Introduction
This study aims to provide a clearer description and more accurate examination of Coordinators in Persian from a typological perspective.
Coordination is a syntactic process using conjunctions to combine two or more unique elements in order to create a complex structure. Conjunctions, of which coordinators are a subgroup, are classified by structure, function, and meaning. One main goal of this study was to achieve a complete classification of coordinators. Another goal was to compare coordination in formal written and informal colloquial Persian. This study identifies three types of coordinating conjunctions semantically: conjunctive, disjunctive, and adversative and three types structurally: monosyndetic (e.g., /va/ “with”, /jâ/ “or”), bisyndetic (e.g., /jâ … jâ/ “or … or”, /ham … ham/ “too … too”), and multisyndetic (e.g., /ĉe … ĉe/ “which …which”). Null coordination is also widely used in both varieties.
Research Questions
1- What types of coordinators are used in Persian?
2- Is there a significant difference in the use of coordinators in formal and informal Persian?
3- What are the distribution patterns of coordinators in formal and informal Persian?
Literature Review
Haspelmath (2004) defines coordinating construction as one in which all of the constituents are of the same syntactic category, maintaining semantic relations with other surrounding elements. He attempts to provide a universal definition of this syntactic process, common across languages, showing a vast range of differences alongside similarities. Coordination combines various syntactic structures, from noun phrases to clauses, using elements called coordinators. Coordinated parts are reversible, without backward anaphora, and multiple conjuncts are possible.
Stilo (2004) examines coordination in three western Iranian languages: Vafsi, Gilaki, and two different registers of Modern Persian: colloquial Tehrani Persian and formal written Persian. He classifies coordinate conjunctions as monosyndetic and bisyndetic: conjunctive, adversative, and disjunctive, and discusses their historical origins and derivations. Stilo (2004) also addresses stress, intonation, and punctuation in these languages.
Stassen (2000) differentiates languages typologically by their strategies for encoding noun phrase conjunction: coordinate and comitative. This distinction leads to the classification of “And-languages” and “With-languages”. It is demonstrated that With-languages exhibit a tendency to drift towards And-languages. Stassen (2000) focuses mainly on noun phrase conjunctions to identify similarities and differences among languages.
Methodology
This research analyzes two varieties of Modern Persian: formal written and informal colloquial. The corpus for the formal variety includes the novel Suvashun by Simin Daneshvar, a prominent contemporary Iranian author from the late 1970s, and seven movie scripts (2014) by Asghar Farhadi, an Oscar-winning Iranian director, representing informal colloquial Persian. This research falls within corpus-based studies of Persian linguistics and compares the distribution of coordinators in the two varieties, contributing to comparative studies of languages. By classifying different types of coordinators in Persian, this study also contributes to typological studies.
Results
Persian coordinators are classified semantically as conjunctive, disjunctive, and adversative and from a structurally as monosyndetic, bisyndetic, and multisyndetic. The most frequently used coordinator in both varieties is the conjunctive monosyndetic /va/ “and” and its clitic allomorph “o” in spoken Persian.
Comparison of the usage, frequency, and distribution of different types of coordinators in formal and informal Persian reveals Persian’s overall tendency to use coordination as a popular strategy for complex syntactic structures. Among 91260 words in Suvashun, there are 5472 coordinators, whereas only 83 coordinators are found in the 19500 words of the seven movie Scripts.
The analysis indicated that informal colloquial Persian prefers asyndetic structures - coordination with null/empty coordinator – more than formal written Persian.
Additionally, /bâ/ “with” functions as a coordinator in both varieties, reinforcing Persian’s classification as a “With-language” in typological studies.
Iraj Zafari; Behzad Rahbar; Mohammad Reza Oroji
Abstract
Abstract
Based on Lakoff and Johnson’s cognitive framework, metaphor is considered is a key way humans perceive concepts in the universe. The aim of the present research was to study the effects of animal names on native Turkish speakers and the implicational meanings of the words. Turkish speakers ...
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Abstract
Based on Lakoff and Johnson’s cognitive framework, metaphor is considered is a key way humans perceive concepts in the universe. The aim of the present research was to study the effects of animal names on native Turkish speakers and the implicational meanings of the words. Turkish speakers derive metaphoric meanings by comparing humans and surrounding events to these entities. Based on interviews with 30 native speakers, 93 words were collected, 22 of which were common and reflected Turkish cultural views. First, the implicational meanings of these 22 words were extracted and listed in a table alongside each animal’s name. Then for each word, the explanation was given according to some examples and poems from Turkish reference books. In addition, the study examined the subjects of gender, frequency, and percentage in these metaphors. The results indicated that animal names influence the speech of native Turkish speakers, who use these metaphoric words daily in appropriate contexts.
Keywords: metaphor, conceptual metaphor, animals’ names, implicational meaning, Turkish language, cultural linguistics, gender.
Introduction
Metaphor, from a cognitive perspective, serves as a fundamental means through which humans comprehend their environment and the phenomena of the world. Contrary to the traditional viewpoint, metaphor extends beyond mere poetic and literary allusions; it constitutes the very fabric of human understanding of the universe. Cultural conditions, specific to an individual’s place of living, shape metaphor, rendering it a reflection of personal experiences.
Within the cognitive linguistic framework, metaphor transcends linguistic boundaries. It permeates thought processes, imbuing abstract concepts with tangible form. The human mind, influenced by natural elements in its environment, channels these phenomena into words, thereby constructing metaphorical expressions.
Each metaphorical word becomes an exquisite vessel for conveying complex concepts and thoughts. Metaphor is not confined to specialized discourse; rather, it permeates everyday conversations. Beyond linguistic utility, it represents a mode of thinking—one that bridges the gap between experiential and abstract realms of creation. This cognitive process extends beyond literary expression; it encapsulates the collective consciousness of speakers across nations.
One intriguing manifestation of metaphor lies in the ontological realm. Through ontological metaphors, we transform abstract concepts into concrete entities. Lifeless phenomena gain vitality, assuming distinct roles within our mental landscape. We can envision nature, and its creatures and even converse in their language.
This article explored animal-related metaphors within the Turkish language. Drawing upon cognitive linguistics, we present a comprehensive categorization, shedding light on how Turkish speakers conceptualize these animals.
Literature Review
Ghatre et al. (2014) have evaluated adjectives related to animals in the Lori dialect in the field of environmental linguistics. Ahmadipour (2013) has explained the effect of the environment on the worldview of speakers. Bang and Dur (1996) have introduced social factors, individual knowledge, collective knowledge, and the mental system of speakers as effective factors in creating a word. Baranine Kezi (2018) believes that cultural conceptualizations of forest, river, water, and weather are the main causes of Hungarian folk poems. Zimmerman and Coddington (2007) have concluded that nature is part of normal indigenous beliefs. Sharifian (2008) concluded that language and culture interact with each other. Sunwork and Alvin (2014) have introduced some concepts of symbolic environment, natural environment, social-cultural environment, and cognitive environment. Sharifian et al. (2008) considered the role of the names of body parts in word formation and the creation of linguistic metaphors.
Methodology
Data collection involved interviews with 30 speakers aged between 40 to 60 from Zanjan city, randomly selected. Participants were asked to imagine an attribute for each animal and whether their perception matched literary meanings. In total, 93 words were collected, with 22 common to all participants. Another part of words and information was obtained from Turkish dictionaries.
Conclusion
The results from 22 metaphorical animal names show that speakers use these words in everyday conversations to refer to each other or other phenomena. The research innovatively collected and evaluated these words using a field method in terms of conceptual metaphors. The significance of these results lies in how each metaphorical word reflects the thinking and taste of Azerbaijani Turkish speakers. Through conceptual metaphors, an abstract domain (destination domain) is represented with the help of a concrete domain (origin domain).
Arezoo Khani; Ali Jamali; Tayyebeh Khoshbakht
Abstract
Abstract
Simile understanding requires two distinct pragmatic skills: understanding the intended similarity and deriving a scalar implicature (e.g., “Nina is like a rabbit” normally implies that “Nina is not a rabbit”). However, the second skill has not been studied yet by Iranian ...
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Abstract
Simile understanding requires two distinct pragmatic skills: understanding the intended similarity and deriving a scalar implicature (e.g., “Nina is like a rabbit” normally implies that “Nina is not a rabbit”). However, the second skill has not been studied yet by Iranian researchers. The aim of the present study was to investigate the ability of mono-lingual Persian-speaking children aged 3 to 7 years old and adults in understanding scalar implicature. To this aim, 50 Persian-speaking children, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 years old were selected through a semi-random method and were compared with 10 adults. The groups were investigated and compared in the first experiment which was a form of similarity judgment task and in the second experiment, which was in a form of a game. In the first experiment, subjects should understand “x is like a y” as an expression of similarity. In the second experiment, the subjects received metaphors (“Nina is a rabbit”) and similes (“Nina is like a rabbit) as clues to select one of three images (a rabbit, a girl, or a rabbit-looking girl). The results showed that 3-year-old children could understand the implicature “x is not a y”, whereas 5 years old children performed like adults. The results showed that children from early childhood were able to understand and derive scalar implicature, and the literal meaning of simile and metaphor decreased with increasing age.
Keywords: scalar implicature, simile, metaphor, mono-lingual Persian-speaking children.
Introduction
Although people don’t always express their intended meaning when talking with others, they don’t have any problems in everyday communication and the successful interaction continues. According to an influential view on communication, which is expressed by Grice (1975), the reason is that the listener will process the meaning of language in two levels. In other words, the listener understands the literal meaning of utterances, but generally enriches the literal meaning by pragmatic inferences which are influenced by speakers’ intentions. Pragmatic reasoning is the result of the expectation that the speaker, as one of the parties of the conversation, will communicate enough to his audience and try to provide sufficient, correct, and concise information provide sufficient, correct, and concise information about the conversation (Grice, 1975). When these expectations are violated in the context of the speaker’s communicative behavior, the listener tries to compensate for this breach of communication by inference about the intended meaning of the speaker. Studies have explored children’s ability to compare different categories in various communicative contexts, from early overextensions (e.g., calling a horse “doggy”) (Bloom, 2002; Cark, 1973; Gershkoff-Stowe et al., 2006) to pretend play (e.g., calling a bucket a “hat”) (Hudson & Nelson, 1984; Vosniadou, 1987a; Winner et al., 1979) and the comprehension of similes and metaphors (Di Paola et al., 2019; Seidenberg & Bernstein, 1986; Vosniadou et al., 1984).
Studies by Happe (1995), Norbury (2005), Reynolds & Ortony (1980), Seidenberg & Bernstein (1986), Siltanen, (1990), Vosniadou & Ortony (1983), Vosniadou et al. (1984) on metaphor and simile comprehension report that for young children, similes are easier to interpret than metaphors, probably because the comparison is explicit. Children’s understanding of similes is related to the development of figurative language (Vosniadou & Ortony, 1983) and analogy (Vosniadou, 1995), both of which require pragmatic reasoning to determine the intended similarity or parallel in a simile or analogy. There are, for example, different ways in which Jack could be like a lion: His hair may be long and messy, resembling a lion’s mane, or he may be strong like a lion (Rubio-Fernandez & Grassmann, 2016). Rubio-Fernandez et al. (2017) have proposed that similes (or comparison statements, more generally) involve another form of pragmatic reasoning that has been overlooked in the literature: the derivation of a scalar implicature. Thus, comparing Jack to a lion (as in “Jack is like a lion”) implies that Jack is not a real lion; otherwise, the speaker would say “Jack is a lion’. In this view, categorization statements of the form “X is a Y” and comparisons of the form “X is like a Y” form a scale in which comparisons are weaker than categorizations, such that their use may imply that the stronger statement does not apply (i.e., describing X as being “like a Y” would imply that X is not a Y). The aim of this study was to investigate preschoolers’ interpretation of similes not only as expressions of similarity (in line with traditional studies of figurative language), but also as scalar expressions that can license the derivation of quantity implicature (Rubio-Fernandez et al., 2017)
Research Hypotheses:
1) It is predicted that even 3-year-old children, like adults in the present study, will understand the sentence “x as a y” as expressessing similarity.
2) It is predicted that literal interpretations of similes (e.g., taking “Melika is like a parrot” as referring to a parrot) in children aged 3 to 7 will decrease with age, revealing a developing ability to derive scalar implicatures (i.e., Meliks is not a parrot).
3) In the metaphor condition, a literal bias is predicted across the preschool years (e.g., understanding “Melika is a parrot” as a literal description of a parrot, rather than a metaphorical description of a parrot-looking girl)
Literature Review
Developmental studies since the 1980s have shown that young children understand similes earlier than metaphors (Vosniadou, 1987a). Supporting the view that literal comparisons and similes are interpreted through similar mechanisms, Vosniadou and Ortony (1983) showed that children aged 3 to 6, like adults, did not prefer literal or figurative continuations in a comparison task. When given statements of the form “X is like Y,” all age groups were as likely to complete the comparison with a literal continuation (e.g., “Rain is like snow”) than with a figurative continuation (e.g., “Rain is like tears”), only dispreferring anomalous comparisons (e.g., “Rain is like a chair”). Özꞔalıskan and Goldin-Meadow (2006) and Özꞔalıskan, et al. (2009) investigated the emergence of comparisons of the form “X is like Y” in the spontaneous speech of 40 English-speaking children during a period of 2 years: from ages 1;2 to 2;10. The “X is like Y” construction had an early onset, with children routinely using it by age 2;2. Interestingly, early similarity comparisons were holistic, often highlighting strong overall similarity between objects of the same category. However, by 30 months, most comparisons were between objects that belonged to different categories, focusing on a single dimension (e.g., “Brown crayon is brown like my hair”). This developmental trajectory suggests that feature-based comparisons are precursors to more abstract analogical reasoning (Özꞔalıskan and Goldin-Meadow (2006); Özꞔalıskan et al. (2009).
Methodology
Fifteen Persian-speaking children aged 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 years were selected through a semi-random method and compared with 10 adults. The groups participated in two experiments: a similarity judgment task adapted from Long et al. (2021) and a game also adapted from Long et al. (2021). In the first experiment, subjects were asked to understand “x is like a y” as an expression of similarity. In the second experiment, subjects received metaphors (“Nina is a rabbit”) and similes (“Nina is like a rabbit) as clues to select one of three images (a rabbit, a girl, or a rabbit-looking girl).
Conclusion
The results showed that 3-year-old children could understand the implicature “x is not a y”, while 5-year-old children performed like adults. The results also showed that children from early childhood could understand and derive scalar implicature, with the literal interpretations of simile and metaphor decreased with age.
sepideh abdolkarimi
Abstract
Abstract
The present study aims to analyze the verb “bastan” (to close) using cognitive semantics. The meanings of “bastan” have been collected using library method, extracted from dictionaries including Sokhan, Dehkhoda, Sadri Afshar's Persian Dictionary, Persian Spoken Variety, ...
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Abstract
The present study aims to analyze the verb “bastan” (to close) using cognitive semantics. The meanings of “bastan” have been collected using library method, extracted from dictionaries including Sokhan, Dehkhoda, Sadri Afshar's Persian Dictionary, Persian Spoken Variety, and the Etymological Dictionary of the Persian Language. This data was used for comparative analysis. In this research, a qualitative research method has been used to describe the meanings and to determine if there is a relationship among them using the image schema theory in cognitive semantics, specifically the models proposed by Evans and Greene, Evans and Evans. The analysis of the schematic meanings of the verb “bastan” showed that out of 26 meanings, 11 are force schemas, indicating an obstacle of a physical or abstract nature, and 18 are link(age) schemas, either physical or abstract. In one case, in addition to the mentioned schema, a splitting schema was considered. Etymological considerations show that the verb “bastan” originates from a single root in its current form: -band in ancient Persian, bandh (badhnāti) in Sanskrit, and -band in Avesta. This matter does not allow the existence of two different unrelated schema, because the connection between meanings will be lost. This research argues that associative schemas show the relationship between the various meanings of the polysemic verb “bastan”.
Keywords: cognitive semantics, image schema, schema transformation, polysemy, semantic relation.
Introduction
Polysemy is a common phenomenon in all languages and the necessity of its existence is to reduce the memory load of the speakers. The undisputed prevalence of this phenomenon in languages has caused an increase in the number of studies on polysemy and word analysis to prove their polysemy in the field of linguistics, in general and in the field of semantics, in particular. Determining the polysemy of a word or the homonymy of several words requires etymological studies and the recognition and analysis of existing meanings, making it a complex decision that cannot be made superficially.
Research Questions
The present study is a semantic attempt to analyze the verb “bastan” (to close) using the theoretical tool in cognitive semantics. The research data, namely the meanings of “bastan”, have been collected using the library method and extracted from various dictionaries, including Sokhan (2003), Dehkhoda (1966), Sadri Afshar's Persian Dictionary (2009), Spoken Persian Dictionary (2016), and of course the Etymological Dictionary of Persian Language (2016).
One of the important points about this article is that the verb “bastan” has not been investigated as a light verb. Although it has been examined in conjunction with certain words such as “lie” and “slander”, the aim was not to analyze compound verbs of Persian which are formed with “bastan” as the verbal particle. Analyzing “bastan” as a heavy verb is expected to facilitate its semantic analysis as a light verb. Limiting the research to its meanings as a light verb would restrict the analysis. It is expected that etymological considerations and the number of schemas associated with the meaning of “bastan” will confirm the polysemy of this verb. If multiple image schemas are associated with its meanings and etymological investigations show that the verb derives from the same root, deciding on the polysemy of “bastan” becomes complex. This research addresses this issue from a cognitive perspective.
Literature Review
Semantic analyses related to this research have been done based on various theoretical frameworks; among them, it is possible to name the semantic analysis of the verb “zadan” (to hit) based on corporal patterns and data from the Persian language corpora of Bijan Khan (Kirimi Dostan & Razani, 2022); the conceptual domain of the verb “shanidan” (to listen) based on the theory of frame semantics and the principles of the framenet (Nayebloui et al., 2021); the semantic expansion of the verb “zadan” based on the theories of conceptual metaphor and metonymy (Bahrami & Sheykhanianpour, 2018); and analyzing the meaning of the verb “goftan” (to say) within the framework of the theory of frame semantics and corpus data (Rahmatinejad et al., 2018). Other studies include the polysemy of the verb “didan” (to see) based on the corpus data and the pattern of Antonano (1999; 2013), Switzer (1990), and Afrashi & Asgari (2016); a diachronic investigation of the semantic dimensions of “gereftan” (to get) from the perspective of componential analysis of meaning and cognitive semantics (Abdolkarimi & Changizi, 2016); and finally, the polysemy of the verb “zadan” based on the concepts raised in cognitive semantics such as image schemas, conceptual metaphor theory and categorization (Kirimi Doustan & Rouhi Baighi, 2015). The similarity of the most recent studies conducted in this field, is their same theoretical basis. The theoretical basis used for data analysis in this research is image schemas, which provide a cognitive foundation. This study shares commonalities with the polysemy study of “zadan” from a cognitive perspective (Kirimi Doustan & Rouhi Baighi, 2015) but differs by using only image schemas and examining different current meanings of “bastan” (to close). Additionally, “bastan” has not been studied as a light verb.
Methodology
In this research a qualitative analysis method has been used to describe the meanings of the verb “bastan” and determine relationships among the meanings using the theoretical tool of image schema in cognitive semantics, specifically the models of Evans & Greene (2006: 187), Evans (2019: 164) and Evans (2019: 236).
Results
The analysis of the schematic meanings of the verb “bastan” shows that among the 24 meanings, there are 11 cases of the force schema, indicating the creation of a physical or abstract obstacle, and 18 cases of the linkage schema, again either physical or abstract. In one case, there was a possibility of considering a branching schema. Etymological considerations show that the verb “bastan” is derived from one root in its current form, which was “- band” in ancient Persian, “bandh (badhnāti)” in Sanskrit, and “band” in Avestan. This result does not support the existence of two distinct unrelated schemas, as the connection between meanings will be lost. In this research, it is argued that associative schemas show a connection between the meanings of the mentioned verb.In cases where the meaning of “bastan” explicitly brings to mind the scheme of connection, it is not far-fetched and easy to believe in unity; moreover, the linkage scheme itself is also a subset of the unity scheme and a meronymic relationship can be considered between them, because linkage of the constituent parts of a whole is a part/parts of the process of forming a unity. What is debatable, is a relationship that can be considered between creating an obstacle and unity, and it is necessary to form such a relationship for the reasons mentioned above. Based on the explanations presented, it can be concluded that creating an obstacle, in addition to being a subgroup of the force schema, can also be considered a subgroup of the unity schema, and the recurring schema will be the unity schema. It means [unity] is present in various meanings of “bastan”.
Amirreza Vakilifard; Shirin Dehqani
Abstract
Abstract
Effective written communication is a crucial skill in both virtual and non-virtual contexts. Developing proficient writing skills requires consistent training and constructive feedback. While previous research has examined the impact of teacher feedback on language learners, the efficacy of ...
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Abstract
Effective written communication is a crucial skill in both virtual and non-virtual contexts. Developing proficient writing skills requires consistent training and constructive feedback. While previous research has examined the impact of teacher feedback on language learners, the efficacy of peer correction technique, a form of corrective feedback, on reducing writing errors among non-Iranian Persian learners has not been extensively studied. To address this research gap, this study investigates the effectiveness of peer correction techniques on the Persian writing skills of 47 male and female Persian learners from diverse nationalities. Non-random purposeful sampling was used to select participants, who were then divided into two groups, each consisting of four separate classes. Prior to implementing the peer correction technique, both groups completed a pre-test. The experimental group underwent six sessions of peer feedback technique implementation, after which a post-test was conducted. Analysis of the participants' writing errors showed that despite some limitations, the peer correction technique had a positive effect on enhancing the Persian writing skills of the non-Iranian learners in the experimental group, leading to a reduction in their writing errors. The findings suggest that peer correction techniques can be an effective means of improving writing skills among non-Iranian Persian learners. This study contributes to the existing literature by highlighting the potential benefits of peer correction techniques and informing pedagogical approaches aimed at enhancing writing skills among non-Iranian Persian learners. Furthermore, the study's results suggest that peer correction provided in a classroom setting can positively impact the writing proficiency of both foreign learners with different native languages and more proficient language learners in the experimental group.
Keywords: peer correction, language error, writing skill, teaching writing skill
Introduction
Writing is a complex activity that all members of society, including language learners and students, engage in. For language learners pursuing academic or professional goals, acquiring writing skills is particularly challenging in second-language education (Abbasi, 2016). Learning to write involves cognitive and unique learning experiences, and individuals both learn through writing and learn to write. Error correction methods, such as self-correction and peer correction, have become integral to various assessment methods, as recommended by proponents like Vygotsky (2000) who emphasize the importance of social interactions in learning. Collaborative learning has shown benefits in language education for several decades (Vakilifard et al., 2020).
Despite the benefits of collaborative learning, instructors remain the primary providers of feedback in first and second language classes, as they are considered the most capable individuals to provide feedback to language learners (Zacharias, 2007). However, achieving proficiency in writing skills for foreign learners, particularly in Persian, poses challenges due to limited time opportunities for practice and consolidation in language learning classes. Insufficient feedback from instructors contributes to the weakness of Persian learners' writing skills compared to other skills such as reading or speaking.
The impact of corrective feedback on writing skills has been a focus of research, and investigating potential reasons within the classroom has become necessary. The relationship between the instructor and language learners, as well as among the language learners themselves, is crucial in determining the method and outcome of education. Peer correction, a technique that has not been widely used in Persian language classes, was investigated for its impact on improving the writing texts of non-Iranian Persian learners in terms of reducing errors. The general aim of this research was to improve the writing skills of non-Iranian Persian learners in advanced-level classes by using strategies to increase the accuracy and fluency of their writing, with a specific focus on the impact of corrective feedback on reducing writing errors (Vakilifard et al., 2020).
Research Questions
What is the impact of utilizing peer correction techniques on the writing proficiency of advanced-level non-Iranian Persian learners?
How does the peer correction technique influence the writing skills of both native and non-native Persian learners?
What effect does peer correction have on the writing proficiency of proficient and less proficient Persian learners?
This study examines the influence of the peer correction technique as the independent variable on the writing proficiency of non-Iranian Persian learners, native and non-native proficiency, and strong and weak language learners as dependent variables. The outcomes of this research aim to enhance language instructors' understanding of peer correction benefits, collaborative learning, implementation strategies, advantages, disadvantages, and its impact on the writing skills of non-Iranian Persian learners.
Literature Review
Izadpanah (2016) investigated the effectiveness of peer correction in reducing writing errors and learners' attitudes. The study involved 20 adult English learners in Palestine, aged 19-21, using a questionnaire, pretest-posttest, and portfolios. Results showed a positive attitude towards peer correction and significant writing improvement.
Ghannbari et al. (2015) studied the impact of peer feedback and time pressure on Iranian English learners' writing performance. Peer feedback positively influenced writing, while time pressure had no effect. The null hypothesis was rejected, confirming the significance of peer feedback.
Sato (2013) explored beliefs about peer interaction and corrective feedback, finding that peer interaction enhances writing accuracy and expressiveness. The frequency of peer corrective feedback increased over time, highlighting its teachable nature.
Tian (2011) compared peer review and collaborative writing in Chinese as a foreign language. Peer review focused more on activity and language aspects, while collaborative writing emphasized meaning and text assessment. Both methods improved writing accuracy and collaboration among learners.
Methodology
The study employed non-random purposive sampling to investigate advanced level non-Iranian Persian learners at the Persian Language Center of the International University of Qazvin.
Initially, 48 participants were selected, with exclusions made for absenteeism and prior familiarity with Persian. The final sample consisted of 48 participants aged 18-25 from diverse nationalities, engaged in advanced Persian language courses in humanities and medical sciences.
The participants were divided into four classes at the advanced level, with two control and two experimental groups. The control group comprised 21 participants (3 females, 18 males) and the experimental group had 27 participants (14 females, 13 males). Language-matched and non-language-matched pairs were included in both groups, with various language backgrounds such as Arabic, Azerbaijani Turkish, Bengali, and Russian. Participants were categorized as strong or weak in language proficiency, with each class having two 90-minute writing skill sessions per week. Pretests and posttests were conducted using written texts on a single descriptive topic to assess the language learners' progress.
Results
The collected scores from pretests and posttests were tabulated and analyzed for measures of central tendency and dispersion. Sample characteristics were described, coded, and summarized before statistical analysis using SPSS 22. The normality of variables was assessed using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, while research hypotheses were tested using analysis of covariance and paired t-tests. Analysis of covariance was utilized to enhance test power by eliminating covariate-related variance, commonly applied in experimental designs. Assumptions for analysis of covariance included normal score distribution, linear pretest-posttest correlation, and variance homogeneity.
Descriptive statistics for language writing skill scores in the experimental and control groups were examined. Pretest scores for the control and experimental groups were 167.14 and 324.11, respectively. Posttest scores for the control and experimental groups were 833.11 and 509.13, respectively.
In the experimental group, pretest language writing skill scores for language-matched and non-language-matched pairs were 16.13 and 75.11, respectively. Posttest scores for language-matched and non-language-matched pairs were 63.13 and 20.11, respectively. Additionally, pretest scores for the strong and weak subgroups in the experimental group were 647.14 and 443.10, respectively. Posttest scores for the strong and weak subgroups were 441.16 and 750.11, respectively.
Conclusion
This study examined the impact of peer correction on Persian writing skills in non-Persian speakers across four language classes. Significant improvement in writing scores of the experimental group compared to the control group post-intervention suggests a positive effect on participants' writing abilities. This aligns with previous research by Izadpanah (2016), Ghanbari et al. (2015), Sato (2013), and Tian (2011) supporting the benefits of peer feedback in language learning. Further investigation is needed to explore nuanced effects, specific writing skill elements, and long-term writing enhancement in Persian learners.
Significant differences were noted between language-matched and non-language-matched groups within the experimental group, with non-language-matched individuals showing greater post-intervention improvement. Notably, strong learners exhibited significant post-intervention progress, indicating the effectiveness of peer correction, particularly for this subgroup.
Despite limitations like sample size and time constraints, this study suggests that peer correction is a valuable strategy for enhancing Persian learners' writing skills. Future research should focus on defining correction criteria, evaluating Persian writing, and exploring peer correction benefits with larger samples. Additionally, incorporating peer correction guidance in writing instruction materials and promoting collaborative learning could enhance educational outcomes.
To address cultural influences on peer correction, particularly observed in Chinese-speaking learners, future studies should investigate cultural nuances affecting peer interactions and learning outcomes. Persian language educators are encouraged to explore the impact of culture on peer correction practices among diverse learner groups.
Faezeh Iranpour; reza mohammadi; Hossein Bazoubandi
Abstract
Abstract
This paper analyzes Surah al-Muzammil via Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL). The study mainly aims to investigate the mechanisms related to the representation of the modality, to specify the process types, and finally, to find the types of thematic structure. In terms of ...
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Abstract
This paper analyzes Surah al-Muzammil via Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL). The study mainly aims to investigate the mechanisms related to the representation of the modality, to specify the process types, and finally, to find the types of thematic structure. In terms of interpersonal metafunction, the theme is the dominant aspect in most of the clauses of Surah al-Muzammil; this result shows that most of the verses have a realistic aspect and description of facts, and also God wants to make his words firm by using more of this mood, delivering and creating a sense of confidence in the audience as well. Moreover, the present tense is the dominant tense in Surah al-Muzammil. Since the scope of the present tense is vast and can include all tenses, the speaker has used chiefly present tense verbs in the surah. Examining the polarity of clauses indicates a high percentage of positive polarity compared to negative polarity, and this predominance of positive polarity, along with the predominance of theme, increases the speaker’s confidence. In addition, based on the ideational metafunction, the material process has the highest frequency in the surah. The high frequency of the material process is due to the objectiveness of the word in the text of the surah- the more objective the speech, the more influential the text. As to the textual metafunction, most of the clauses’ thematic structure is unmarked, indicating that the speaker tries to use the same typical mechanism in everyday language to construct information structure.
Keywords: Holy Quran, Surah al-Muzammil, interpersonal metafunction, ideational metafunction, textual metafunction
Introduction
Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) is a widely used linguistic approach that can effectively analyze the Qur’anic texts despite the structural differences between English and Arabic (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014). Based on this linguistic school, language structure is affected by the functions it performs in the context of communication and the outside world (social settings) (Bazobuandi & Sahrai, 2015: 2). Halliday points out that the primary purpose of human communication is the exchange of meaning. For this reason, the semantic system of a natural language can be divided into several separate semantic components that are related to the most general functions of the language, which Halliday calls metafunctions by which Halliday means “that part of the language system, the special semantic and lexical/grammatical properties that have evolved to form the discussed metafunction” (Safaei et al., 2017: 118). Halliday states that three ideational, interpersonal, and textual meta-functions constitute the SFL. According to the general communicative view of the SFL, the present study examines all three ideational, interpersonal, and textual meta-functions in Surah al-Muzzammil.
Research Questions
The present study seeks to answer the following questions via a descriptive-analytical method within SFL:
1- Based on the interpersonal metafunction, what mechanisms are used to represent modality in Surah al-Muzzammil, and how are the temporality and polarity in Surah al-Muzzammil distributed?
2- Based on ideational metafunction, what kind of processes are used in Surah al-Muzzammil, and which has the most frequency in Surah al-Muzzammil?
3- What mechanisms are employed to organize the message based on the textual metafunction?
Literature Review
In recent years, in the SFL framework, several works have been published in various fields; of course, the number of studies related to holy texts, especially the Holy Quran (despite the importance of the related discourse), is insignificant. This section reviews some works done on the holy texts via the SFL principles:
Batmani (2010) analyzed the verses of Surah Yaseen from the perspective of the principles of Holliday’s SFL. It mainly aimed to test the mentioned theory and check its applicability in the field of Quranic data. Similarly, Azizkhani et al. (2017) examined the text of Surah Al-Inshirāḥ with a linguistic analysis, based on Halliday’s SFL, in three ideational, interpersonal, and textual metafunctions. In his master’s thesis, Shojaei (2018) employed a descriptive-analytical method to investigate the exchanging meaning in 112 wisdom sayings of Nahj al-Balagheh in terms of interpersonal metafunction. Bazoubandi (2019) using a descriptive-analytical method employed the SFL principles of Halliday and Matthiessen (2014) to investigate the construction of modality in the dialogue between God the Almighty and Iblis in four surahs Al-A’raf, Al-Ḥijr, Al-Isra’ and Ṣād. Then, using the Prototype theory (Rosch, 1978), the markedness hierarchy (Greenberg, 1966), and the frequency criterion (Croft, 2003), the cognitive and typological interpretation of these results were offered for a better understanding of the structural features of the Qur’anic language.
Methodology
This research used a descriptive-analytical method to examine the Surah al-Muzzammil in the Holy Quran based on the SFL principles; all of its clauses were identified (48 clauses) and analyzed in terms of interpersonal, ideational, and textual metafunctions. To explore the interpersonal metafunction, the modality of each clause was determined by mentioning the subject and tense of each clause in the form of specific tables, and the speech function and dominant modality of each clause were also selected from the declarative and non-volitional mood. In addition, the polarity of each clause and the constituent elements of the remaining clause were also determined. All six processes and their dominant frequency were examined based on the ideational metafunction. Concerning the textual metafunction, the initial structure of the clauses and their markedness were investigated.
Conclusion
Ideational Metafunction
The results show that all kinds of processes are used in this Surah al-Muzzammil, and the material and mental processes are the most frequently used processes in this surah, with a frequency of 31.25 and 25%, respectively. The reason for using the material process more than other processes is that from the very beginning of the Surah, God talks about the heavy mission of the Prophet and the problematic responsibility of prophethood and uses material processes to speak to the Prophet and the believers. This issue makes the blessings more concrete for the Prophet, and he is more affected because the more objective the speech is, the more persuasive it is (c.f., Nabifar, 2014: 22); making the text more understandable. In addition, the frequency of the mental process after the material process indicates that throughout this surah, God invites the Prophet and the believers to things that directly require the understanding and feeling of his audience- verbs used in some clauses of Surah al-Muzzammil, are those that can be understood with sense and perception.
4.2. Interpersonal Metafunction
Concerning the distribution of modality types in Surah al-Muzzammil, the results indicate that all modality types are used in the surah. However, the declarative is the dominant modality in the surah, with 62.5%, and the non-volitional mood accounts for 37% of the modality of Surah al-Muzzammil. As to tenses, the results show that the present tense is dominant with 47.91 %, and the past and metatense account for 33.33 and 18.75 percent, respectively. Here, according to the discussion of Greenberg’s markedness hierarchy and Croft’s frequency of occurrence criterion (Bazoubandi, 2019) and using the data of the whole corpus, it can be pointed out that the future tense is the most marked because the frequency of its occurrence compared to other tenses is less. The present tense is considered the least marked tense in the available data due to the highest frequency of occurrence. There is a direct relationship between markedness and frequency of occurrence-the less frequent a particular tense is, the more marked that tense is. As to the distribution of the polarity of clauses, the positive polarity of clauses at 97.91 % surpassed the negative polarity at 2.08 %. This result is also wholly consistent with the discussion of Greenberg’s markedness hierarchy and Croft’s frequency criterion- positive clauses are unmarked due to high frequency, and negative clauses are marked due to low frequency.
Textual Meta-function
More than 96% of the clauses have unmarked structures, and sometimes marked structures are also evident due to the Qur’anic emphasis. In response to the why of dominant frequency of the unmarked structure in Surah al-Muzzammil, it can be said that the style and language of the surah, in particular, and the text of the Holy Qur’an, in general, is such that it can use the conventional words of the Qur’an and with the most eloquent tone and dialect means to introduce its speech to the audience; complex dialects and linguistic deconstruction are avoided in the text so that the meaning of the words is within the level of ordinary people’s understanding. In comparison, literary texts try to violate language rules using various literary techniques. This issue makes it difficult for the audience to understand, but in the text of Surah al-Muzammil and the Qur’an, several unmarked constructions can be observed, one of the aspects distinguishing it from various literary texts.
Claris Sarkissian; Fatemeh Bahrami; Mazdak Anoushe
Abstract
Abstract
The categorization and syntactic structure of the infinitive have been subjects of debate, with differing views considering it either as a noun or a verb. This research aims to explore the characteristics of Persian infinitives and propose a hierarchy for their projection within the framework ...
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Abstract
The categorization and syntactic structure of the infinitive have been subjects of debate, with differing views considering it either as a noun or a verb. This research aims to explore the characteristics of Persian infinitives and propose a hierarchy for their projection within the framework of Distributed Morphology. By considering the infinitive's dual nominal-verbal behavior and its potential role as an adjective, this study seeks to provide a comprehensive explanation of the Persian infinitive. In addition to reviewing relevant literature, it is observed that the behavior of the Persian infinitive differs from that of the infinitive in languages such as English. While it shares some similarities with the English gerund, it is important to note that the Persian infinitive has distinct properties. Consequently, the nature of the Persian infinitive and its derivation differ from those of the English infinitive and gerund. The study also highlights the use of wh-words in infinitive structures and the ability of (negative) infinitives to permit the presence of polarity items within their structure. Furthermore, the infinitive can function not only as a noun or a verb but also as an adjective. Based on these observations, a hierarchy of infinitive projection is proposed. Additionally, the research suggests the position of infinitive affix insertion, providing evidence that contradicts initial assumptions regarding the insertion point of the Persian infinitive affix.
Key Words: Persian Infinitive, hierarchy of projection, Distributed Morphology, morphosyntactic merge, categorization of infinitive affix
Introduction
The categorization of the infinitive as either a noun or a verb has been a matter of ongoing debate. This duality of behavior has led to differing positions among grammarians, with some considering it a noun, others considering it a verb, and some proposing a fuzzy categorization. The specific behavior of the Persian infinitive further complicates the issue, as it can function both as an infinitive and as a gerundive nominal in languages, like English. This research aims to propose a hierarchy for the projection of Persian infinitives within the framework of Distributed Morphology. This framework, which lacks categories for roots, offers a suitable approach for explaining the nominal-verbal and adjectival behaviors of infinitives. Additionally, it accurately captures the relationship between finite verbs and their corresponding infinitive forms through common syntactic processes, without making a clear distinction between morphology and syntax.
Literature Review
There has been a lack of agreement among grammarians regarding the nature of the infinitive, leading to different perspectives in the literature. Some scholars consider the infinitive as a noun (Hosseini, 2002; Darzi, 2005; Anvari and Givi, 2013), while others classify it as a verb (Shariat, 1985; Nobahar, 1993; Mosaffa Jahromi, 2013). Another group argues that the infinitive exhibits both nominal and verbal features (Shafaei, 1984; Rezaei, 2016; Rasekh-Mahand, 2015).
The discussion of the infinitive's argument structure adds further complexity to the analysis. Vahedi-Langrudi (1996: 10-12) suggests that the behavior of Persian infinitives resembles that of English gerunds, emphasizing their valency. Dabir Moghaddam (1997: 35) provides a comprehensive perspective on the argument structure of infinitives, highlighting a process in Persian that converts finite verbs into infinitives, where they become the head of genitive (Ezafe) phrases. Aghagolzadeh et al. (2010) demonstrate that all Persian infinitives can bear an argument structure, with the semantic roles of verbs appearing as possessive elements after the noun and prepositional phrases. Karimi Doostan (2007) refers to words such as “hefz/maintaining”, “ʔanjam/doing”, and “?edâme/continuing” as “propositional nouns”. These words exhibit verb-like behavior due to their argument structure, while also accommodating prepositions, Ezafe markers, and light verbs, which aligns them with nouns.
The incorporation of arguments is another aspect relevant to the analysis of Persian infinitives. Karimi and Tishehgaran (2022) discuss four types of infinitives: unergative, unaccusative, transitive, and ditransitive. Anoushe (2021: 731) proposes a structure for Persian infinitives within the framework of Distributed Morphology, capturing their dual behavior.
Figure 1: Persian infinitive structure (Anoushe, 2021: 731)
nP
vP
n (-dan/-tan)
√ro
(0-) v
Methodology
This study adopts a descriptive-analytic research approach, employing the formal framework of Distributed Morphology. The data was collected through a combination of attested and self-constructed examples, guided by the authors’ intuition.
Discussion
The presence of vP, CauseP, TP, and NegP in the hierarchy of Persian infinitive projections is supported by their verbal behaviors, such as the ability to accommodate adverbs, negation markers, causative affixes, the potential for passivization, and the possession of an argument structure. Additionally, the necessity of an nP node is affirmed by their nominal behaviors, including the acceptance of plural markers, modification by adjectives, and the presence of the “râ” marker. The inclusion of a wh-word in infinitive constructions further confirms the existence of a CP. However, a challenging issue arises regarding the position of the infinitive affix. While the heads of vP, TP, and nP all have the potential to host the infinitive affix, some evidence rejects all three positions as potential merger sites for the infinitive affix.
The vP head is unable to contain the infinitive affix due to the presence of light verbs occupying the head position in compound verbs, leaving no space for the affix to merge. Furthermore, in causative infinitives, where the causative projection is located above the vP, merging the infinitive affix before the causative affix is not feasible. Persian deverbal nouns, formed by adding nominal affixes to the verbal root (cf. Anoushe 2021: 625-627 and 731), do not exhibit the same behaviors as infinitives, as they are unable to accommodate adverbs and verbal negative affixes. Consequently, the nature of infinitives and deverbal nominals in Persian differs, and the infinitive affixes “-dan/-tan” cannot be considered nominal. As a result, the head of nP lacks an overt representative element and serves solely as a null syntactic element, altering the category of the infinitive without being the insertion position for the infinitive affix. Likewise, merging the infinitive affix in the head of TP encounters a challenge in future tenses, as the lexical main verb appears as a truncated infinitive. This poses a contradiction since the head T is occupied by an auxiliary verb in the future paradigm and cannot naturally serve as the position for the truncated infinitive affix.
Therefore, we require an independent position, separate from the aforementioned three locations, to provide the insertion position of the infinitive affix, which can account for all Persian infinitive constructions while remaining consistent. Given that infinitiveness is a characteristic projected across the entire structure, we propose the introduction of an Inf(initive) Phrase, with its head serving as the insertion site for the infinitive affix. This phrase is positioned above CauseP and below TP. By merging nP over CP, the infinitive assumes a nominal nature and exhibits nominal characteristics. Additionally, it is possible to merge CP with an adjective. Consequently, the hierarchy of infinitive projection expands to the structure n/a in its final order.
Conclusion
The primary focus of this article was to address the challenge of categorizing Persian infinitives as verbs, nouns, or, in some cases, adjectives. Based on the findings, a proposed hierarchy of infinitive projections was presented, along with the identification of the appropriate position for the insertion of the infinitive affix. Contrary to initial assumptions, the evidence suggests that none of the heads of vP, nP, and TP serve as suitable locations for merging the infinitive affix. Instead, it is merged into an independent projection that encompasses the infinitive features, known as InfP.
The final hierarchy of Persian infinitive projection, taking into account its verbal, nominal, and adjectival behaviors, is as follows:
nP/aP < CP < (NegP) < TP < InfP < (CauseP) < vP < √P
Mohammadreza Razavi; Marziyeh Allahyari
Abstract
Abstract
The interface between morphology and syntax has been a disputed issue among linguists. The main goal of this research is to investigate the interface between morphology and syntax and represent the existence of interaction between these two structural modules of language. Therefore, we have ...
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Abstract
The interface between morphology and syntax has been a disputed issue among linguists. The main goal of this research is to investigate the interface between morphology and syntax and represent the existence of interaction between these two structural modules of language. Therefore, we have studied two productive word formation processes in the language of science. One of them is the result of the module of morphology, but we can assign a syntactic substructure to it. The other one is itself a syntactic entity, but it shows some morphological behaviors. These two processes are respectively noun incorporation and the formation of syntactic phrases. For this purpose, 500 terms from the first dictionary of a collection of terms approved by the Academy of Persian Language and Literature, and 500 terms from the sixteenth dictionary of a collection of terms have been chosen randomly and studied in this research. The main framework of this research is the interactional approach. We have also utilized additional tools from other theoretical approaches, such as constructional schemas in construction morphology. The research conducted in this essay depicts the definitions of incorporating nouns, in the dictionaries, to confirm their syntactic structure. On the other hand, losing some syntactic markers in syntactic phrases demonstrates the lexicalization of these structures. This study showed that incorporating nouns had a greater diversity of constructional schemas than syntactic phrases. However, the productivity of syntactic phrases was higher in comparison to incorporating nouns. Furthermore, the usage of syntactic phrases had increased in the ten-year period. As a result, the overall trend was ascending.
Keywords: morphology, syntax, language of science, interactional approach, constructional morphology, noun incorporation, syntactic phrase.
Introduction
The most generative module of language is syntax. This statement encouraged the author to understand whether this competence of language in word formation of the language of science, which is one of the registers of language and could have its own word formation rules, is profitable or not. On the other hand, the formation of compound words is the most similar process to a syntactic process (Giegrich, 2009: 319). Particularly, one of the most productive processes of making compounds in Farsi is "incorporation". Noun incorporation in Farsi is the first type of incorporation according to Mithun (1984,1986), in which we observe 2 corresponding syntactic constructions. Thus, the existence of this syntactic sub-construction depicts that analyzing this word formation process is a good example of the interaction between morphology and syntax but the noun incorporation is not the only construction which has a syntactic side; the formation of a syntactic phrase is another process which is syntactic by itself, but in some cases these phrases lose their syntactic elements like "ezâfe" in this research. It means that the syntactic phrases also have some morphological behaviors and they could, as a result, take an account as another sign of the interaction between morphology and syntax. In this research, we have chosen 500 words from the first dictionary of a collection of words approved by the Academy of Persian Language and Literature, and 500 words from the sixteenth dictionary. We will find out whether the definition of incorporating nouns illustrates the syntactic construction or not. In the second phase, we will determine the syntactic and semantic roles of each constituent in incorporating nouns and syntactic phrases in order to understand which syntactic and semantic roles have been used more. For this purpose, the constructional schemas were helpful tools used in this research. It should be mentioned that our main aim is to demonstrate the interaction between morphology and syntax, but we have not made ourselves deprived of having certain semantic surveys.
Literature Review
The morphology-syntax interface has been a disputed issue in linguistics. The autonomy of morphology has led to 2 different approaches. The lexicalist approach is a term that has been used in generative theories (O’Neil, 2016: 242). According to this approach, the output of morphology is the input of syntax. Syntax, moreover, does not have any access to the internal structure of words and cannot change their meaning (Chomsky, 1970: 240). However, in the other approach, which is called distributed morphology, we do not have a coherent lexicon as we do in generative grammar. The only generative component of language is syntax which produces words, phrases, and sentences (Anoushe, 2021: 616).
Noun incorporation is perhaps the most nearly syntactic of all morphological processes (Mithun, 1984: 847). According to Kroeber's definition (1909: 541), "Incorporation is a process which produces a word from a combination of direct object to the verb. This new word has the role of predicate in sentences," while Sapir (1911: 255) is against this twofold syntactic-morphological perception. Mithun (1984), considers noun incorporation as a morphological structure. Rosen (1989), also has the same view and considers noun incorporation as a morphological process that occurs in the lexicon. However, Baker (1988), has a syntactic perception to the incorporation. Thus, it is obvious that the exact place of noun incorporation as a morphological or syntactic process is still a controversial issue among different linguists.
Methodology
The interactional approach to language is a new approach that is the main framework of this research. In this approach, we believe in independent modules of the language, but we also assign an interactional relation between them (Dabir-Moghaddam, 2020: 41). This is one of the most important principles of this approach which helps illustrate the dimensions of interaction between modules of morphology and syntax in this research. The interactional approach believes that there is a syntactic construction for each incorporating noun, and it is an abstract template for producing these nominal compounds, and whenever it is necessary, this abstract structure is transformed into that syntactic construction (Dabir-Moghaddam, 2020: 358-359).
As we have mentioned before, we have also had certain semantic analyses in this research. For this purpose, constructional schemas in constructional morphology are beneficial tools. The word "construction" is a concept that can be used in both levels of word formation and syntactic phrase (Booij, 2010a: 1).
One of the main processes of word formation is compound formation which is considered as a construction. The constructional schema for this structure has been shown here:
(1) [[a]Xk[b]Ni]j [SEMi with relation R with to SEMk]j
The double arrow symbolizes the relationship between a particular form and a particular meaning. The variable X stands for the major lexical categories (N, V, A, and P). The variables "a" and "b" in this schema stand for arbitrary sound sequences. The variables "i"," j", and "k" stand for the lexical indexes on the phonological, syntactic, and semantic (SEM) properties of words. In (1), the meaning contribution of the compound schema is specified, as morphology deals with the correlation between form and meaning in sets of complex words. For instance, the substitution of one of the incorporating nouns in this corpus is like this:
(2) [[hobab]N(DIR-OBJ(k [saz]Vi]j [a tool which shows the action SEMi is done on the patient SEMk]j
As it is obviously clear in this constructional schema, the first constituent of this construction is the direct object of the syntactic construction of incorporating the noun "Hobabsaz" [bubblemaker], this constituent furthermore has the semantic role of a patient in supposed syntactic construction. "R" depicts a relation in which a tool does an action on a patient.
Conclusion
The research conducted in this thesis depicts the definitions that have been used to describe incorporating nouns in dictionaries to confirm the syntactic construction of incorporating nouns. On the other hand, losing some syntactic markers, in syntactic phrases, demonstrates lexicalization of these structures. The most common syntactic role of an incorporated constituent in incorporating nouns was the object. In addition, the syntactic and semantic roles of most of the constituents used with predicate nouns, in syntactic phrases, were respectively "adjuncts" and "manner". Incorporating nouns had a greater diversity of constructional schemas than syntactic phrases. However, the productivity of syntactic phrases was higher. Furthermore, the usage of syntactic phrases has increased in the ten-year period since the year of publication of the first dictionary up to the sixteenth dictionary. As a result, the overall trend was ascending.
Acknowledgments
This essay is inspired by my master's degree dissertation. Thus, I should appreciate my professor, Doctor Mohammad Dabir-Moghaddam, who was the supervisor of this dissertation. I was not able to write even one word without his worthwhile pieces of advice. Secondly, I appreciate Doctor Mohammad Reza Razavi who always has had profitable comments in order to write a readable essay.
Elnaz Rashed Chitgar; Reyhane Mohamadi; Sakineh Mohammad Zamani; Mohammad Hassan Torabi
Abstract
Abstract
The strategy of conversational repair is one of the most important pragmatic skills, which includes requesting clarification and responding to the request for clarification. In this cross-sectional descriptive-analytical study, the conversational repair skills of 15 children with cochlear implants ...
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Abstract
The strategy of conversational repair is one of the most important pragmatic skills, which includes requesting clarification and responding to the request for clarification. In this cross-sectional descriptive-analytical study, the conversational repair skills of 15 children with cochlear implants were compared with 15 language age-matched hearing children TOLD-P:3. The aforementioned skills of subjects were evaluated in the dyadic interactions of the children with cochlear implants and unfamiliar hearing children. For this purpose, the children's conversations were transcribed and coded. The results showed a significant difference between the average number of requests for clarification in the group of children with cochlear implants, and hearing children matched in terms of language age (p < 0.05), but the average number of strategies of responding to the request for clarification in children with cochlear implants was not significantly different from that of the hearing children. Also, children with cochlear implants used the skill of requesting clarification more than the hearing children matched based on the language age, which can indicate that the skill of requesting clarification takes longer to develop, and hearing children, considering their chronological age, are probably not mature enough in their use of this skill. Another possibility could be that children with normal hearing, despite having the same language age as children with cochlear implants, still have more and better access to auditory information due to having normal hearing, and therefore, do not need as many requests of clarification as children with cochlear implants.
Keywords: conversational repair, request for clarification, response to the request for clarification, children with cochlear implants, conversation.
Introduction
Many hearing-impaired children, even if they have good lexical and syntactic skills, may not be able to use these skills properly in social contexts, and as a result, show deficiencies in conversational skills. The strategy of conversational repair is one of the most important pragmatic skills, which includes requesting clarification and responding to the request for clarification. The present study was conducted with the aim of investigating the skill of conversational repair (request for clarification and response to the request for clarification) in children with cochlear implants and their language-age-matched hearing counterparts. The question of the present research is whether or not the skill of requesting clarification and responding to it in cochlear-implanted children is different from their hearing peers in terms of language age.
Literature Review
Ackerman (1983) proposed a three-component model for the skill of requesting clarification. This model includes the three components of detection, evaluation, and clarification, based on which, in case of an ambiguous verbal message, three steps are taken: the first step is to detect or recognize the ambiguous message; the second is to evaluate what has led to the ambiguity in the statement; and finally, the third is to clarify the ambiguous message by asking questions. Church et al. (2017) in a study on 93 hearing-impaired children with an age range of 7-12 years - who were matched with hearing children based on chronological age and language age - showed that hearing-impaired children performed worse than their hearing counterparts on rapid responding, topic maintenance, and requesting for clarification when asking and answering about their favorite topic, and use non-verbal behavior instead of conversational repair. Samuelsson and Lyxell (2014) also investigated seven children with cochlear implants in the age range of three years and six months to six years and nine months in daily interactions, and concluded that the skills of requesting clarification in children with cochlear implants were better than those of hearing children in dyadic interactions while playing. Lichtig et al. (2011), examining the communication behaviors of 127 hearing children with and without hearing loss between the ages of 3 and 6 years during free play, showed that hearing children in their daily situations were more skillful in requesting for clarification than their hearing-impaired counterparts. Mousavi et al. (2014) compared some pragmatic abilities, including topic maintenance, turn-taking, and conversational repair, in Persian-speaking children with severe hearing loss aged 4 to 6 years with their hearing peers. The authors found that there was a significant difference between the hearing and hearing-impaired groups on the average duration of topic maintenance, turn-taking scores, conversational repair of the kind of requesting for clarification, and conversational repair of the kind of responding to the request for clarification. Mousavi et al. concluded that hearing-impaired children were weaker in using pragmatic skills than hearing children.
Methodology
In this cross-sectional descriptive-analytical study, the conversational repair skills of 15 children with cochlear implants were compared with those of 15 hearing children matched in terms of linguistic age. The language age of these children was matched using the Test of Language Development (TOLD-P3). In this research, the personal information questionnaire of hearing-impaired children with cochlear implants, the personal information questionnaire of hearing children, and the Test of Language Development (TOLD-P3) were used. The skills of requesting clarification and responding to the request for clarification in the hard of hearing-impaired children with cochlear implants were observed and evaluated in their dyadic interactions with unfamiliar hearing children. The children's conversations were transcribed and coded, and the obtained data were analyzed based on the studied variables using the U-Mann-Whitney statistical test.
Results
The results of this research showed that the average number of requests for clarification in the group of children with cochlear implants when compared to the language age-matched hearing children had a statistically significant difference (P<0.05), but the average number of strategies to respond to the request for clarification did not show any significant difference between the two groups. There was no statistically significant difference between the average conversational balance in children with cochlear implants and hearing children of the same language age (p < 0.05). The average communication failure in children with cochlear implants was significantly (p < 0.05) higher than that of hearing children of the same language age.
Conclusion
The average number of requests for clarification in children with cochlear implants was higher than those of hearing children of the same language age. One possible reason may be that sometimes children with cochlear implants may not fully understand what their interlocutor is saying due to various reasons, such as environmental noise, and this causes an increase in the number of requests for clarification in their conversation.
Children with cochlear implants used more clarification requests than hearing children. On the other hand, the average communication failure in children with cochlear implants was significantly higher than that of their language-age-matched hearing counterparts. This point could indicate an interesting but not surprising result: children with cochlear implants have hearing problems (or perhaps language problems due to late language acquisition), and this high-frequency perceptual weakness causes poorer understanding. Therefore, these children use a lot of requests for clarification in order to understand the speaker's intention. Sometimes these strategies are successful, and sometimes they are not, leading to communication failures.
The greater use of clarification requests in children with cochlear implants compared to healthy children with the same language age could also have another reason. Children with cochlear implants may face hearing problems to some extent; this is an issue that does not apply to hearing children, and for this reason, there is a greater need to ask for clarification in children with cochlear implants. This is despite the fact that healthy children, due to not having hearing problems - even when they have the same language age as children with cochlear implants - understand the speaker more easily, and consequently, generally do not need to make as many requests for clarification as those with cochlear implants. This can be another reason for the significant difference in the requests for clarification between children with cochlear implants and healthy children.
Another reason could be that deaf children with cochlear implants possess more skill in conversational repair simply because of their older age and, therefore, greater development than hearing children.
Finally, the findings of the present study show that children with cochlear implants show different communication behaviors than children with normal language development matched to their language age, and this issue can affect their ability to communicate in different environments, including academic and social environments. Therefore, therapists, trainers and teachers involved in the education or treatment of these children should pay attention to these communication differences and use the appropriate communication strategies when working with these children.
